Method and system for effecting changes in pigmented tissue

ABSTRACT

Methods and systems are described for a rapid and sustainable change in the pigment melanin content of melanocytes of the iris stroma, thereby to change the color of the eye. Also described are nanoparticle compositions for lightening or darkening the pigmented tissues or treating a pigmented tissue disease.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of the priority of

-   a. International Patent Application No. PCT/US10/00257, filed Jan.     29, 2010, and -   b. International Patent Application No. PCT/US10/002051, filed Jul.     21, 2010.

Further, this application claims the benefit of the priority of

-   c. U.S. NonProvisional patent application Ser. No. 13/138,260, filed     Jul. 25, 2011 and -   d. U.S. NonProvisional patent application Ser. No. ______ filed Nov.     29, 2011.

Further, this application claims the priority of

-   e. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/206,391, filed     Jan. 29, 2009; -   f. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/212,722, filed     Apr. 15, 2009; -   g. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/271,498, filed     Jul. 22, 2009; -   h. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/271, 961, filed     Jul. 29, 2009; -   i. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/343,558, filed     Apr. 30, 2010; and -   j. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/418,570, filed     Dec. 1, 2010.

This application is a continuation in part of

-   a. International Patent Application No. PCT/US10/00257, filed Jan.     29, 2010; -   b. International Patent Application No. PCT/US10/002051, filed Jul.     21, 2010; -   c. U.S. NonProvisional patent application Ser. No. 13/138,260, filed     Jul. 25, 2011; -   d. U.S. NonProvisional patent application Ser. No. ______ filed Nov.     29, 2011; -   e. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/206,391, filed     Jan. 29, 2009; -   f. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/212,722, filed     Apr. 15, 2009; -   g. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/271,498, filed     Jul. 22, 2009; -   h. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/271, 961, filed     Jul. 29, 2009; -   i. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/343,558, filed     Apr. 30, 2010; and -   j. U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/418,570, filed     Dec. 1, 2010.

Throughout this application various publications, published patent applications, and patents are referenced. The disclosures of these documents in their entireties are hereby incorporated by reference into this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

With respect to cosmetic affects, it is known that large populations of people desire to enhance or to change the color of their eyes, skin or hair. As an example, there exists a large market for providing a change or an enhancement of the color of the eyes. Intra-ocular implants have been provided heretofore for the purpose of enhancing or changing the color of the eyes. The markets for hair color-altering compositions and topical applications for bleaching skin discolorations are also huge markets.

Cosmetic treatment of skin and hair color has heretofore been problematic. Multiple topical applications of sometimes-toxic compositions have been required to achieve the desired cosmetic effect, such as a change in color.

In addition, various barriers exist that have heretofore slowed the penetration of active ingredients administered by the ocular route. Both precorneal and corneal factors considerably restrict ocular penetration. The low bioavailability of classical ophthalmic dosage forms can be improved by several approaches, particularly by increasing the time the active ingredients remain in contact with the eye tissues.

Many approaches have been tried, including color contact lenses, implants and laser surgery, to change the color of the eye, none with good results. There is demand for an agent that would safely and effectively change the color of the iris.

With respect to the eyes, a problem exists in that large populations of people are being treated with glaucoma medications derived from prostaglandin analogs. Many such medications cause the conjunctiva to become darker or darkly spotted and the iris of the eye to become darker. These situations often result in unsightly and embarrassing appearance of the eyes. Many people are beginning to experience this problem. This is due at least in part to the aging population in which the prevalence of glaucoma is pronounced. Older people are susceptible to glaucoma and have demonstrated unhappiness with the darkening eye color effect of the glaucoma medications. Usually administered in the form or eye drops. There is a great desire in the general public and as a result a large market for a mechanism to alter the color of the eye from brown to hazel, green, and blue.

There exists a need for a quickly penetrating topical eye medication in by which eye color in healthy people can be changed safely or eye discoloration that resulted from the necessary use of existing glaucoma medications in some people can he reversed. In addition, a medication is needed that overcomes precorneal and corneal factors inhibiting penetration so as to affect the pigmentation of the conjunctiva and iris of the eye by reducing the coloration thereof. There also exists a need for a delivery system for cosmetic or therapeutic chemicals or medications that targets the melanin in pigmented tissue in the eye, the skin, the follicle roots of the hair or the base tissue of the nails so as to be capable of effecting cosmetic changes. For example in the color of the iris, the skin and of the hair, or targeting and delivering treatments for diseases that occur in pigmented tissue without adversely affecting healthy tissue.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The subject application describes a method of lightening the color of the iris of a human subject. In this method, a composition of a tyrosinase inhibitor is administered to the iris of human subject in an amount effective to lighten the color of the iris. Such composition can also contain at least one melanogenesis inhibitor.

The subject application also describes a method of introducing pigments to the iris of a human subject. In this method, at least one melanogenesis promoter is administered to the iris of a human subject in an amount effective to introduce pigments to the iris. The iris of the human subject becomes darker after such treatment.

The subject application further describes another method of introducing pigments to the iris of a human subject. In this method, a biological dye is administered to the iris of a human subject in an amount effective to introduce pigments to the iris. The iris of the human subject changes color and/or glows after such treatment.

The subject application yet further describes a nanoparticle composition for lightening pigmented tissues. This nanoparticle composition contains a targeting agent of melanocytes chemically bound to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a tyrosinase inhibitor. Such pharmaceutical composition can also contain at least one melanogenesis inhibitor.

The subject application yet further describes a method for lightening pigmented tissues of a human subject. In this method, the nanoparticle composition described herein is administered to the human subject so as to lighten the pigmented tissues.

The subject application yet further describes another nanoparticle composition for treating a pigmented tissue related disease. This nanoparticle composition contains a targeting agent of melanocytes chemically bound to a pharmaceutical composition containing an active agent for the disease.

The subject application yet further describes a method for treating a pigmented tissue related disease. In this method, the nanoparticle composition described herein is administered to a human subject afflicted with a pigmented tissue related disease so as to treat the disease and pigmented cancer cells such as Melanoma. It has been demonstrated that MITF (Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor) is an amplified oncogene of human melanomas and that it also has an oncogenic role in human clear cell sarcoma. MITF is a major contributor of pigment formation in both healthy and cancerous pigmented cells. For these reasons downregulation of the MITF can be applied to both healthy pigmented cells to change the color of the tissue, or to the cancer cells to stop the growth of the tumor.

In the methods described herein, the targeting agent binds to cells of the pigmented tissues to permit the release of the pharmaceutical composition directly into the cells of the pigmented tissue without affecting non-pigmented cells.

The subject application yet further describes a method of depigmenting the iris melanocytes to lighten the color of the iris. This method includes the use of one or more of the following steps:

Blocking the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve supply to the melanocytes using botulinum toxin and Memantine;

Preventing tyrosine conversion to melanin by one of available tyrosinase inhibitors;

Preventing Melanocyte-stimulating hormone activation (MSH) by using 2,5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (DMHF);

Inhibiting the COX-2 enzyme using NSAIDS;

Preventing melanogenesis by using a cholinergic agonist;

Blocking Alpha I-adrenergic receptors by using antagonist chemicals;

Transcriptional regulation of Melanogenic Enzymes by downregulation of MITE by Transforming Growth Factor (TGF) Family; and

Post-Transcriptional Modification of Melanogenic Enzymes by Inhibiting N-glycolysation of melanosomal enzymes.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1. Background biology of the eye I

FIG. 2. Background biology of the eye II

FIG. 3. Scheme of neuromuscular synaptic junction

FIG. 4. Snap receptors (SNARE) complex and Synapatosomal associated protein (SNAP)

FIG. 5. Target molecules of botulinum (BoNT) and tetanus (TeNT) toxins inside the axon terminal

FIG. 6. Diagram of melanogenesis process

FIG. 7, Melanin formation scheme

FIG. 8. Extracellular influence

FIG. 9. Intracellular pathway from nucleus to melanosomes

FIG. 10. Intracellular pathway from cell membrane to the nucleus

FIG. 11. Schematic of aqueous flow

FIG. 12. The destiny of nanoparticles in the eye

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Because eye color is caused by melanin produced by iridial melanocytes, similar strategies to those currently being used to inhibit melanogenesis in the skin may be of benefit, such as tyrosinase inhibition¹¹¹ There already exist many skin lightening treatments. however there are major differences between the melanocytes of the iris and melanocytes of the skin, and as such the existing skin treatments do not apply to the eye. Table 1 below provides a list of the major differences between the melanocytes of the iris and melanocytes of the skin. As a result, the depigmenting chemicals (bleaching agents) of the skin may not work directly on the iris.

There is an interesting naturally occurring change in the color of the eye in Homer's Syndrome³⁻⁵, where over a long period of time the color of the iris turns from brown to blue. This is caused by the blockage of the sympathetic nerve impulses to the iris pigment cells (melanocytes) due to many different reasons, such as a tumor or injury. This suggests that stimulation of melanocytes by nerves may also be important for melanogenesis and that inhibition of sympathetic signaling to melanocytes may be effective for causing decreased iridial melanogenesis.

The melanocytes of the iris have direct synaptic attachment with autonomic nerve endings.¹⁻² The influence of sympathetic neural stimulation and melanogenesis³⁻⁴ and the color of the iris is a known fact as seen in Horner's syndrome.³⁻⁵ Also, blocking the biosynthesis of melanin through the use of enzymes and bleaching agents may accentuate the process of depigmentation.

TABLE I The fundamental differences between iris and skin relating to the color 1 Iris Skin 2 No Epithelium on the surface Epithelium on the surface Ectoderm 3 Basement Membrane behind the BM under basal layer stroma 4 Neural Crest in origin via Mesoderm N.C. in origin via Surface ectoderm 5 Made of connective tissue and Made of Basal layer and keratinocytes fibrocytes 6 Abundant blood vessels and capillaries No blood vessels or capillaries in the epithelium 7 Pigment in melanocytes and Pigment in melanocytes and keratinocytes macrophages 8 Melanocytes scattered in the stroma Melanocytes only in Basal layer 9 Melanin majority “pigment deposits” Melanin majority melanosomes and keratocytes 10 Melanin production minimal (stable) Melanin production constant (very active) 11 Access barriers (cornea & aqueous) Access barriers (stratum corneum & spinosum) 12 Access needs transport system Access through direct contact 13 Melanin production minimal or no Melanin production very sensitive to UV reaction to UV light exposure light exposure 14 Minimal tyrosinase activity Tyrosinase very active 15 Direct innervations to melanocytes Minimal nerve connection to melanocytes 16 Melanogenesis is mostly influenced by Melanogenesis minimal influence by autonomic neural stimulation autonomic nervous system stimulation 17 Melanocytes do not donate or transfer Melanocytes constantly donate and transfer Melanin to the other cells melanin to Keratinocytes 18 Amount of pigment in iris pigment Amount of pigment in skin epithelium is epithelium has nothing to do with the directly related to the color of the skin color of the eye 19 Variation in colors not limited to the Color variation directly related to amount Melanin alone (Diffraction, light of melanin in skin absorption, Interference . . .). 20 Pigment in epithelium and stroma Pigment in basal layer and keratinocytes 21 COX-2 is endogenous in iris COX-2 is activated by UV exposure or melanocytes inflammation 22 No response to alpha-MSH alpha-MSH causes increased proliferation and melanogenesis

Due to the fact that melanogenesis is not a linear process, but a cascade of multiple interactive chemical processes, one can intervene at any of multiple steps along the melanogenesis cascade individually, or in combination to reach the desired goal of altering melanin production. By blocking one or more of these steps, and/or by destroying the existing melanin, the bleaching effect can be achieved. For example, the melanocytes of the iris have direct synaptic attachment with autonomic nerve endings¹⁻². The influence of sympathetic neural stimulation and melanogenesis³⁻⁴ and the color of the iris is a known fact as seen in Horner's syndrome₃₋₅. Therefore as one of the several factors described below, blocking the neural stimulation to iridial melanocytes in isolation or in combination with blocking the biosynthesis of melanin in iridial melanocytes through the use of enzymes and bleaching agents may accentuate the process of depigmentation.

Melanogenesis is initiated with the first step of tyrosine oxidation to dopaquinone catalyzed by tyrosinase. This first step is the rate-limiting step in melanin synthesis because the remainder of the reaction sequence can proceed spontaneously.⁷¹ The Mequinol (4-hydroxyanisole) subsequent dopaquinone is converted to dopa and dopachrome through auto-oxidation. Dopa is also the substrate of tyrosinase and oxidized to dopaquinone again by the enzyme. Finally, eumelanin are formed through a series of oxidation reactions from dihydroxyindole (DHI) and dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA), which are the reaction products from dopachrome.

In one example, a method for achieving the hypopigmentation of the iris, may include one or more of the following steps involving medicinal interventions with small molecules:

-   -   Block the stimulatory nervous input to the melanocytes using         drugs such as, but not limited to, botulinum toxin and         memantine.¹⁹⁻²⁰     -   Botulinum toxin can be used to block the synaptic         neurotransmitters to prevent melanogenesis by melanocytes, as         observed in Horner's Syndrome³⁻⁴⁻²⁵. Although many medical uses         for botulinum toxin have been documented¹⁹⁻²⁰ and patented²³⁻²⁴,         the only reference to its cosmetic use in the iris teaches away         from such use due to potential side effects on the iridial         musculature²⁸⁻²⁹. However, botulinum toxin has been used in the         eye for the treatment of strabismus for decades³⁸, and also         retro-bulbar injection was used to treat nystagmus³⁹ without         much adverse effect. Accordingly, the use of drug-containing,         targeted nanoparticles described herein could minimize the         exposure of neighboring tissues and help prevent complications.         This represents a novel use for the botulinum toxin for cosmetic         use of pigment alteration in the iridial melanocytes.²⁶     -   Alternatively, NMDA and AMPA glutamate receptor antagonists such         as memantine have been shown to be effective in human cells to         block nerve stimulation of melanocytes and therefore decrease         pigment production and may also be useful for depigmentation.³³     -   Stop tyrosine conversion to melanin by one of many available         tyrosinase inhibitors such as hydroquinone 21,Arbutin³⁰,         hydroxystibene compounds like Resveratrol³¹, or zinc         alpha-2-glycoprotein.¹²     -   The activity of tyrosinase in the stroma of the iris is very         limited (90% of activity in iris is in pigment epithelium behind         iris stroma). Using tyrosinase inhibitors could work alone or in         conjunction with other mechanisms of depigmentation to achieve         optimal results. Although U.S. Patent Application Publication         No. 2000/6359001 (Pharmacia) teaches the use of tyrosinase         inhibitors in combination with prostaglandin analogs in order to         offset iatrogenic or disease-induced hyperpigmentation in         patients being treated for glaucoma, there is no mention of         cosmetic use in healthy individuals.     -   “Hydroquinone, which is a hydroxyphenolic chemical, has been the         gold standard for treatment of hyperpigmentation for over 50         years. It acts by inhibiting the enzyme tyrosinase, thereby         reducing the conversion of DOPA to melanin. Some of the other         possible mechanisms of action are the destruction of         melanocytes, degradation of melanosomes, and the inhibition of         the synthesis of DNA and RNA.”²¹     -   Stop Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) activation by using         DMHF (2,5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone).¹⁴     -   MSH inhibitors and bleaching agents, when used in combination         with the other methods described here, could intensify the         bleaching effect and help to achieve the goal of lightening the         color of the eye in a shorter span of time.     -   “Data suggest that DMHF inhibits the downstream step of cAMP         production induced by a-MSH, consequently inhibiting         melanogenesis. This suggestion was further confirmed by the fact         that the increased production levels of         microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, tyrosinase and         tyrosinase-related protein-1 induced by a-MSH were all reduced         by DMHF in B16 melanoma cells. Conclusions: Our study shows that         DMHF inhibits a-MSH induced melanogenesis by suppressing CREB         phosphorylation, which is induced by protein kinase A, and         suggests that DMHF may be an effective inhibitor of         hyperpigmentation.”¹⁴     -   Inhibit the COX-2 enzyme using NSAIDs, such as bromfenac,         Celecoxib, a COX-2 inhibitor, has been shown to inhibit the         increase of melanin.⁴⁶     -   The majority of COX activity of the iris stroma has been shown         to be of the COX-2 version 10. Although COX-2 activity is known         to be present in the iris and ciliary body, it has not been         realized heretofore that blocking the COX-2 activity by using an         NSAID such as bromfenac would create yet another barrier to         melanogenesis.     -   “Little is known about the distribution of COX-1 and COX-2 in         animals. In studies investigating the iris and ciliary body of         the normal rabbit eye. The presence of COX-I and COX-2 in         freshly excised iris and ciliary body tissue from adult New         Zealand White albino rabbits was demonstrated by real-time         RT-PCR and Western blot analysis. The localization of both         isoforms and of the neuron-specific protein gene product 9.5 was         determined by indirect immunofluorescence. Both enzymes are         expressed in the iris and the ciliary body.”²⁷     -   Stop melanogenesis by using a cholinergic agonist. This         technique may be especially powerful in combination with         neurotoxins from (1), as it could alleviate potential pupillary         dilation as a side effect of botulinum administration, for         example, but can be reversed by Pilocarpine.     -   The influence of autonomic neurotransmitters on the uveal         melanocytes has been studied and it has been shown that         muscarine, a cholinergic agonist, inhibits the growth and         melanogenesis in medium, An example of a muscarinic agonist that         can be used to interfere with melanogenesis is Pilocarpine,         which has been used for many years to treat glaucoma.         “Epinephrine, isoproterenol, salbutamol and metaproterenol         (adrenergic agonists that can activate B₂-adrenoceptors)         substantially stimulated growth and melanogenesis of cultured         uveal melanocytes in cAMP-deleted medium. Methoxamine,         clonidine, prenalterol and D7114 (adrenergic agonists that do         not activate B2-adrenoceptors) showed no effect under similar         experimental conditions. Muscarine (a cholinergic agonist)         inhibited the growth and melanogenesis of uveal melanocytes in         complete medium. It indicates that adrenergic agents         (B₂-adrenoceptor agonists) stimulate growth and melanogenesis in         uveal melanocytes, while cholinergic agonist has an inhibitory         effect.”‘     -   Additional small molecule agents that decrease tyrosinase         activity in iridial melanocytes whose mechanism of action is         upstream of tyrosinase synthesis, such as Haginin A, can be         useful in achieving depigmentation.     -   “Haginin A is an effective inhibitor of hyperpigmentation caused         by UV irradiation or by pigmented skin disorders through         downregulation via ERK and Akt/PKB activation, MITF, arid also         by the subsequent downregulation of tyrosinase and TRP-1         production.³²     -   Another approach to decrease melanogenesis is to prevent pH         neutralization or promote pH acidification of melanosomes. This         could be achieved by blockage of the activity of the P protein,         recently shown to be essential for melanosomal pH         neutralization.     -   “near neutral melanosomal pH is optimal for human tyrosinase         activity and melanogenesis: (ii) melanin production in Caucasian         melanocytes is suppressed by low melanosomal pH; (iii) the ratio         of eumelanin/pheomelanin production and maturation rate of         melanosomes can he regulated by melanosomal pH, We conclude that         melanosomal pH is an essential factor which regulates multiple         stages of melanin production. Furthermore, since we have         recently identified that pink locus product (P protein) mediates         neutralization of melanosomal pH. We propose that P protein is a         key control point for skin pigmentation.”³³⁻³⁴     -   Amyloid formation in early melanocytes has been shown to be         necessary for proper melanogenesis. One example of         hypopigmentation subsequent to disruption of normal melanocytic         amyloid formation is Pmel 17 blockage, which results in severe         hypopigmentation. As such, phorbol ester or a Calmodulin         inhibitor may be used to induce Pmel 17 shedding.⁶⁵     -   “Melanocytes synthesize and store melanin within tissue-specific         organelles, the melanosomes. Melanin deposition takes place         along fibrils found within these organelles and fibril formation         is known to depend on trafficking of the membrane glycoprotein         Silver/Pme1 17. However, correctly targeted, full-length         Silver/Pmel 17 cannot form fibers. Proteolytic processing in         endosomal compartments and the generation of a lumenal alpha         fragment that is incorporated into Amyloid-like structures is         also essential. Dominant White (DWhite), a mutant form of         Silver/Pmel 17 first described in chicken, causes disorganized         fibers and severe hypopigmentation due to melanocyte death.³⁵     -   Misdirection of tyrosinase to lysosomes to accelerate its         degradation. Inulavosin, a melanogenesis inhibitor, misguides         tyrosinase from going to melanosomes to going to lysosomes,         where the tyrosinase is destroyed. “Inulavosin, a melanogenesis         inhibitor isolated from Inula nervosa (Composite), reduced the         melanin content without affecting either the enzymatic         activities or the transcription of tyrosinase, tyr, or Trp1 in         B16 melanoma cells. Inulavosin inhibits melanogenesis as a         result of mistargeting of tyrosinase to lysosomes.³⁷     -   In addition to the methods outlined above in this application,         combinatorial approaches with other effective strategies may be         desired in parallel or in series for enhanced timing or strength         of effect. For example, molecular biological strategies to         silence or decrease specific genetic targets involved in the         melanin biosynthetic pathway and/or signaling components that         stimulate it could be used with any of the strategies listed         above. One example would involve use of inhibitory DNA or RNA         agents such as siRNA, as taught in U.S. Patent Application         Publication No. 2008/0119433 A1, in combination with agents         described in this application, such as botulinum toxin.     -   Targeting of iridial melanocytes. Furthermore, it may be         necessary to target the melanocytes specifically, as off-target         drug effects may be detrimental. There have been many instances         of Nanoparticle Drug Delivery Systems (DDS) that transport toxic         medications safely to targeted tissue without affecting the         surrounding tissue. Examples includes TB drug delivery         system¹⁷cancer treatment 16, and treatment of fungal         infections²².     -   In multidirectional approaches to decrease iris pigmentation, in         addition to inhibition of tyrosinase catalytic activity, other         approaches to decrease iris pigmentation include denervation of         melanocytes, inhibition of tyrosinase mRNA transcription,         aberration of tyrosinase glycosylation and maturation,         acceleration of tyrosinase degradation, interference with         melanosome PH, maturation and pigment accumulation, and         inhibition of inflammation-induced melanogenic response.     -   In an embodiment, the emphasis is on using a multiple drug         approach together with using Botulinum toxin for changing the         color of normally brown eyes to lighter colors. In this         embodiment, depigmentation of the iris and as a result a change         to the color of the eye is achieved by simultaneous and multiple         approaches to stop melanogenesis in the melanocytes in the iris         stroma. This includes denervation of the melanocytes by         botulinum toxin and stopping the melanogenesis by multiple         chemicals that interfere with biosynthesis of the melanin, and         muscarine effect that has been shown to inhibit growth and         melanogenesis in melanocytes in vitro. It has not been known         heretofore to use botulinum toxin for altering the color of the         eye.     -   Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF)         modification:     -   MITF is a basic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper transcription         factor, which acts as a master regulator of melanocyte         development²³⁸. The MITF-M isoform, with the promoter most         proximally located upstream to the common exon sequences, is         exclusively expressed in melanocytes and is believed to bind the         M box regulatory element and transactivate the promoter of         tyrosinase, TYRP-1 and TYRP-2, as well as other genes²³⁷. MITF's         multiple functions vary between Instructing melanocytes towards         terminal differentiation and/or pigmentation and, alternatively,         promoting malignant behavior.     -   MITF is also an amplified oncogene in a fraction of human         melanomas and that it also has an oncogenic role in human clear         cell sarcoma.²³⁸     -   Upon stimulatory binding of a-melanocyte stimulating hormone         (a-MSH) to the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), adenyl cyclase is         activated and cAMP produced. cAMP then activates the protein         kinase A (PKA) pathway to phosphorylate cAMP-responsive element         binding protein (CREB) transcription factors, which mediates         MITF-M promoter activation to induce melanogenesis. MITF is also         regulated at the transcriptional level by interleukin-6 (IL-6)         and Wnt Signaling pathway. Furthermore. MITF is         post-transcriptionally regulated by phosphorylation via         ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK), glycogen synthase kinase-3b (GSK3b),         p38 stress signaling and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)         pathways by currently undefined mechanisms/pathways.     -   Glycogen synthase kinase 3B (GSK3B) is implicated in many         biological events, including embryonic development, cell         differentiation, apoptosis, and the insulin response. GSK3B also         plays a key role in the Wnt/B-catenin pathway. The master         regulator of the pigmentation microphthalmia-associated         transcription factor (MITF) is a target for the Wnt pathway 243.     -   Using Transforming growth factor-B (TGF-beta) to down regulate         MITF:     -   Transforming growth factor-(TGF-beta1) is a cytokine that plays         a role in the inhibition of pigmentation.     -   TGF-beta1 is believed to mediate the down-regulation of the MITF         promoter activity, reducing the production of tyrosinase,         TYRP-1, TYRP-2 and MITF protein levels²³⁹.     -   TGF-beta1 inhibits the expression of paired-box homeotic gene         (PAX 3), a transcription factor and key regulator of MITF in         melanocytes²⁴⁰.     -   TGF-beta1 influences the extracellular-signal related kinase         (ERK) pathway and down-regulates MITF as well as melanogenic         enzyme production²⁴¹     -   ERK activation by sphingosine-1 -phosphate, C2-ceramide and         sphingosylphosphorylcholine has also been reported by Kim et         al., which the authors hypothesize, may play an important role         in the inhibition of melanogenesis     -   ERK activation, is thought to result in phosphorylation of MITF         and its subsequent ubiquitination and degradation²⁴².     -   Using Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) to down         regulate MITF:     -   Transforming growth factor-beta2 (TGF-beta2) is also a protein         encoded by paired-box homeotic gene 3 (PAX3) is a key regulator         of the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) in         the melanocyte lineage.     -   “PAX3 expression is directly inhibited by TGF-beta/Smads. UV         irradiation represses TGF-beta in keratinocytes, and the         repression of TGF-beta/Smads upregulates PAX3 in melanocytes,         which is associated with a UV-Induced melanogenic response and         consequent pigmentation. Furthermore, the TGF-beta-PAX3         signaling pathway interacts with the p53-POMC/MSH-MC1R signaling         pathway, and both are crucial in melanogenesis. The activation         of p53-POMC/MSH-MC1R signaling pathway is required for the         UV-induced melanogenic response because PAX3 functions in         synergy with SOX10 in a cAMP-response element (CRE)-dependent         manner to regulate the transcription of MITF′²⁴⁰.     -   The known amount of active TGFbeta2 in aqueous humor (0.2-0.4 ng         m1-1) is sufficient to inhibit the growth of uveal melanocytes.         It indicates that TGF-beta2 is a potent growth inhibit factor of         uveal melanocytes and may play an important role in maintaining         the non-proliferative, relatively quiescence status of uveal         melanocytes in vivo.²⁴⁴     -   Recently downregulation of MITF has been reported using         Thymelaea hirsuta extract.²⁴⁵

Post-Transcription Modification of Melanogenic Enzymes

-   -   “Treatment with various agents that inhibit N-glycosylation can         result in the down-regulation of melanosomal enzyme activity and         reduced melanosomal maturation A major post-translational         modification of melanogenic enzymes is the attachment of         N-linked glycans to asparagine residues in Asn-X-Ser/Thr motifs         (where X is not Pro), during the polypeptides translocation in         the ER. This glycosylation is critical for the proper maturation         of tyrosinase. A detailed review of the processes involved in         the N-glycosylation of melanogenic enzymes has been published by         Branza-Nichita el al. Inhibition of proper Nglycan processing of         melanogenic enzymes can result in improper polypeptide folding         and in turn inhibition of melanogenesis, as they facilitate         association with lectin-chaperones.     -   An alpha-glucosidase inhibitor that disrupts early ER N-glycan         processing, and deoxymannojirimycin, an inhibitor of         alpha-1,2-mannosidase which are thought to be responsible for         late glycan processing, showed inhibition of glycosylation,         transportation of tyrosinase to the melanosome and melanin         synthesis     -   Using tunicamycin and glucosamine, specific inhibitors of lipid         carrier-dependent glycosylation of protein, resulted In         decreased pigmentation and ultra structural as well as         biochemical aberrations in melanogenic compartments of treated         B16 melanoma cells BMY-28565, inhibits melanogenesis by         depressing tyrosinase activity with no impact on tyrosinase mRNA         levels in B16 melanoma cells.

Other factors explored for their ability to modulate tyrosinase glycosylation include calcium D-pantetheine-S-sulfonate, ferritin and glutathione. Glutathione induced inhibition of tyrosinase glycosylation, blocks the maturation and transfer of tyrosinase from GERL (Golgi-endoplasmic reticulum-lysosome)-coated vesicles to the pre-melanosome. Yet, other mechanisms of action proposed for glutathione include (A) the direct inactivation of tyrosinase by chelating copper within the enzyme's active site. (B) Mediating the transition from eumelanogenesis to pheomelanogenesis, as glutathione participates in the conversion of dopaquinone to pheomelanin, (C) antioxidant properties that quench free radicals and peroxides that induce melanin formation, and (D) modulating the depigmenting capabilities of melanocytotoxic agents.

In a distinct study by Choi et al, treatment of HM3K0 melanoma cells with deoxymannojirimycin, a alpha-glucosidase inhibitor that disrupts early ER N-glycan processing, and deoxymannojirimycin, an inhibitor of alph-1,2-mannosidase which are thought to be responsible for late glycan processing, showed inhibition of glycosylation, transportation of tyrosinase to the melanosome and melanin synthesis” ²⁴⁶.

Such a technique would result in a rapid and sustainable reduction in melanin content of the iris stroma and thereby a lightening of the color of the eye. In an example, a method for achieving the bleaching and/or coloring of the iris, may include administering one or more of the following agents to the eyes of a human subject:

-   -   Tyrosinase inhibitor     -   Glutamate receptor blocker (Memantine)(CAS)     -   Alpha-adrenergic blocker (Thymoxamine)(CAS)     -   Cox inhibitor (Bromfenac)     -   Cholinergic agonist (Pilocarpine)(CAO)     -   Downregulation of mitf, tyr &Trp1 (Haginin A)(CAD)     -   Acidification of melanosomes (H89)     -   Opioid receptor antagonist (Naloxone)     -   Pmel 17 blocker (Calmodulin inhibitors)     -   Fibroblast growth factor inhibitor     -   MITF downregulation (by TGF beta family such as TGF-beta-I & TGF         beta-2)     -   Post-Translational Modification of Melanogenic Enzymes         (N-Glycosylation Inhibitors)     -   siRNA gene silencing

The following is a list of tyrosinase inhibitors which can be used for the method for achieving the bleaching and/or coloring of the iris described above.

-   -   Kojic acid, the most intensively studied inhibitor of         tyrosinase, is a fungal metabolite currently used as a cosmetic         skin-whitening agent and as a food additive for preventing         enzymatic browning⁹¹. Other slow-binding inhibitors of         tyrosinase are the very potent inhibitor tropolone⁹³ and the         substrate analog L-mimosine.⁹⁴.     -   New Inhibitors of tyrosinase are classified into five major         classes, including polyphenols. benzaldehyde and benzoate         derivatives, long-chain lipids and steroids, other natural or         synthetic inhibitors, and irreversible inactivators based on         either the chemical structures or the inhibitory mechanism.     -   Polyphenols represent a diverse group of compounds containing         multiple phenolic functionalities and are widely distributed in         nature. Polyphenols are also the largest groups in tyrosinase         inhibitors until now.

Flavonoids are among the most numerous and best-studied polyphenols, that is, benzo-| |-pyrone derivatives consisting of phenolic and pyrene rings. Widely distributed in the leaves, seeds, bark, and flowers of plants, more than 4,000 flavonoids have been identified to date. Flavonoids may be subdivided into seven major groups, including: flavones, flavonols, flavanones, flavanols, isoflavonoids, chalcones, and catechin. In addition to flavonoids, other polyphenols, which were also identified as tyrosinase inhibitors, contain stilbenes and coumarin derivatives.

Flavonols: quercetin (5,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxyflavonol)¹⁰⁰, myricetin (5,7,3¹,4′,5′-pentahydroxy-flavonol) , kaempferol (5,7,4′-trihydroxyflavono)¹⁰⁰. galangin (5,7-dihydroxyflavonol), morin, buddlenoid A, buddlenoid B⁹⁸⁻⁹⁹ 6-hydroxykaempferol.¹⁰¹

Flavanones: Norartocarpetin: R═OH (Competitive; RAb, 10.4F)¹⁰⁵, Artocarpetin: R═OCH3(RAb<0.1F)⁹⁹, Streppogenin (Competitive; RAb), 13.6F)¹⁰⁷ Flavanols: Dihydromorin (RAb, 0.5F)⁹⁹

Taxifolin (RAb,1.0F;ref.46)000HOHOOHR2R3R100H000HOMe0H

Isoflavans: Glabridine(Non-competitive; RAb, 15.2F)¹¹⁷, GlyasperinC (RAb, 27.7F),¹¹⁷00HOHOHOH

Isoflavones: Calycosin(RAb, 1.3F)¹²³, 6-Hydroxydaidzein: R1=R3=H, R2=0H (Competitive; RAb, 6.0F)¹¹⁹, 8-Hydroxydaidzein: R1=R2=H, R3=0H (Suicide substrate)¹²⁰, 8-Hydroxygenistein: R1=R3=0H, R2=H (Suicide substrate)¹²⁰, Isoflav-3-enOOHOHOOHR, HagininA (Non-competitive; RAb, 10.1F)¹²¹

Chalcones: 2,4,2′,4′-Tetrahydroxychalcone: R═H (Competitive; RAb, 2.5F)¹³², 2,4,6,2′,4′-Pentahydroxychalcone: R═OH (Competitive; RAb, 12.0F)¹³²,

-   -   ROHOOHOHOH

Prenylated Chalcones: OHOOHMe0LicochalconeA (Competitive; RAb, 5.4F) ¹²⁴,

OHOOHOHOHTMBC(Competitive; RAb, 26.1F)127,

17OHOOHOHOMeOHOHOOHOHOMeOHOHKuraridin (RAb, 34.1 F)¹²⁵,

Kuraridinol (Non-competetive; RAb,18.4f)¹²⁶

N-Benzylbenzamides: NHOR1R2R3R4R5OH3,5,2′,4′-Tetrahydroxyl derivatives: R1=R3=H,R2=R4=R5=OH (RAa, 7.4F)¹³³, 2,4,2′,4¹-Tetrahydroxyl derivatives: R1=R3=R5=OH,R2=R4=H (RAa,0.6F) ¹³³, 3,5,4′-Trihydroxyl derivatives: R1=R3=R5=H, R2=R4=H (RAa«0.1F)¹³³, 2,4,4′-Trihydroxyl derivatives: R1=R3=0H, R2=R4=R5=H (RAa«0.1F)¹³³

Flavones, flavanones, and flavanols, nobiletin (5,6,7,8,3′,4′-hexamethoxyflavone), naringin (5,7.4′-trihydroxyflavanone), neohesperidin (5,7,3′-trihydroxy-4′-methoxyflavone¹⁰²⁻¹⁰³, neohesperdin in citrus fruit, Mulberroside F (moracin M-6,3′-di-O-[ ]-glucopyranoside), norartocarpetin, Streppogenin (5,7,2′,4′-tetrahydroxy-flavavone,)¹⁰⁷, Dihydromorin (5,7,2′,4′)-tetrahydroxyflavanol, Artocarpetin (5,2′,4′-trihydroxy-7-methoxyflavone, isolated from the wood of Artocarpus heterophyl¹⁰⁶⁻¹⁰⁷, taxifolin (5,7,3′4)-tetrahydroxyflavanol¹¹³ , Garcinia subelliptica ¹¹⁴.

Isoflavonoids: seeds of Glycyrrhiza species (Leguminoseae): glabridin and glabrene¹¹⁵,

Glyasperin C¹¹⁷ , Aspergillus oryzaecontaines three hydroxyisoflavones-6-hydroxydaidzein (6,7,4′-trihydroxyisoflavone); -8-hydroxydaidzein (7,8,4′-trihydroxyisoflavone); and -8-hydroxygenistein (5,7,8,4′-tetrahydroxyisoflavone)¹¹⁸⁻¹¹⁹, Haginin A (2′,3′-dimethoxy-7,4′-dihdroxyisoflav-3-ene¹²¹, Dalbergioidin (5,7,2′,4′-tetrahyroxyisoflavan) isolated from L. cyrtobotrya ¹²², calycosin (4′-methoxy-7,4′-dihydroxyisoflavone¹²³.

Chalcones: Three chalcones derivatives, including licuraside, isoliquiritin, and licochalcone A, kuraridin , isolated from the plant Sophora flavescens kuraridinol, 2,4,2′,4′-tetrahydroxy-3-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-chalcone (TMBC), 2,4,2′,4′-tetrahydroxychalcone.¹³¹

Stilbenes: Oxyresveratrol (2,4,3′,5′-tetrahydroxy-trans-stilbene)¹⁰⁶, Resveratrol (2,3′,5′-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene), Chloroporin (4-geranyl-3,5,2′,4′-tetrahydroxytrans-stilbene)¹³⁶, Gnetol (2,6,3′,5′-tetrahydroxy-trans-stilbene) ¹³⁷, piceatannol (3,5,3′,4′-tetrahydroxy-trans-stilbene)¹³⁸, Dihydrognetol¹³⁹, HNB [4-(6-hydroxy-2-naphtyl)-1.3-bezendiol] New isostere of oxyresveratrol, HNB is the strongest tyrosinase inhibitor published until now.¹⁴⁵

Coumarins: Aloesin¹⁴⁶⁻¹⁴⁷m Esculetin¹⁴⁷, 9-hydroxy-4-methoxypsoralen 8′-epi-cleomiscosin A¹⁵¹, cleomiscosin A, Benzaldehyde and Benzoate Derivatives: benzoic acid, benzaldehyde, anisic acid, anisaldehyde, cinnamic acid, and methoxycinnamic acid from the roots of Pulsatilla ceruna¹⁵¹, 4-substituted benzaldehydes from cumin¹⁵³, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde from roots of Mondia whitei¹⁵⁴, p-coumaric acid from theleaves of Panax ginseng¹⁵⁵, hydroxycinnamoyl derivatives from green coffee beans¹⁵⁶, and vanillic acid and its derivatives from black rice bran¹⁵⁷, Ilourobentaldehydes¹⁶¹, methyl trans-cinnamate¹⁶², salicylic acid¹⁶³, Hydroxybenzaldehydes¹⁶⁴, 4-[ ]-D-glucopyranosyloxybenzoate¹⁶⁵, Protocatechualdehyde¹⁶⁶⁻¹⁶⁷, Vinyl benzaldehyde¹⁶⁸. 4-alkylbenzaldehyde¹⁶⁹⁻¹⁷⁰, 2-hydroxy-4-isopropyl-benzaldehyde¹⁷¹, 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde-O-ethyloxime¹⁷²4-butyl-benzaldehyde thioseinicarbazone¹⁷³, Gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate)¹⁷⁴⁻¹⁷⁶, Gallic acid was also found to be very toxic to melanoma cells with cytotoxicity comparable to that of hydroquinone¹⁷⁷, flavonoids with gallate moiety bonded to the 3-hydroxyl position, including GCG [(+)-gallocatechin-3-0-gullate] and EGCG [(−)-epigallocatechin-3-0-gallate], were isolated from green tea leaves¹⁷⁹, Syntetic tyrosyl gallates¹⁸⁰, 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloylglucopyranose isolated from the seed kernels of M. indica¹⁷¹, 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloylglucopyranose isolated from the seed kernels of M. indica¹⁷⁸, Paeonia suffruticosa.¹⁸¹

Long-chain Lipids and Steroids: Several lipids were purified from natural sources and exhibited tyrosinase inhibitory activity, including Triacylglycerol, trilinolein¹⁸², Glycosphingolipid, soyacerebroside ¹⁸³, Cerebroside B, from Phellinus linteus¹⁶⁶, Trans geranic acid^(184,) Trifolium balansae ¹⁸⁵, 2[ ](2S)-hydroxyl-7(E)-tritriacontenoate¹⁸⁶, Triterpenoid, 3.21 ,22,23-tetrahydroxycycloart-24(31),25(26)-diene¹⁸⁷, Triterpenoid glyeosides¹⁸⁸, Pentacyclic triterpenes from the aerial part of the plant Rhododendron collettianum¹⁸⁹, Diterpenoids from the aerial parts of Aconitum leave ¹⁹⁸.

Lappaconitine hydrobromide, revealed activity similar to that of kojic acid¹⁹¹. Crocusatin-K, isolated from the petals of Crocus sativus¹⁹²

Sesquiterpenes from the leaves and stems of Chlorantus henryi¹⁹³

Sesquiterpenes dimmers from the leaves of Chloranthus tianmushanensis¹⁹⁴,

Hydroxylated steroid metabolites isolated from the fungus Cunninghamella elegans cultivations feeding with 17-^([ ])-ethynyl- or 17[ ]-ethylsteroids,¹⁹⁵

Other Natural and Synthetic Inhibitors from Other sources:

Anthraquinones: Physcion (1,8-dihydroxy-2-methoxy-3-methylanthraquinone) ¹⁹⁶, 1,5-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-3-methylanthraquinone¹⁹⁷, lignans isolated from the roots of Vitex negundo, most active lignan from the plant (+)-lyoniresinol¹⁹⁸, Phloroglueinol derivative, dieckol, isolated from a marine brown alga, Ecklonia stolonifera¹⁹⁹, marine derived fungus Myrothecium sp. that contain 6-n-pentyl-[ ]-pyrone²⁰⁰

Tricoderma viride strain H1-7, has competitive inhibition toward monophenolase activity of mushrum tyrosinase through binding to a copper active site of the enzyme.²⁰¹

Other inhibitors from synthetic sources: N-Phenylthiourea (PTU) and its Derivatives ²⁰²⁻²⁰³ Synthesized N-(phenylalkyl)cinnamides derived from the coupling cinnamic acid with phenylakylamines²⁰⁴, Compounds by combining the structures of two putative tyrosinase inhibitors, Kojic acid and caffeic acid ²⁹⁵, Analogs of cupferron ²⁰⁶, Nsubstituted-N-nitrusydroxylainines²¹⁷, N-hydroxybenzyl-N-nitrosohydroxylamines²⁰⁸, Nsubstituted-N-nitrosohydroxylamincs²⁰⁹, sildenafil²¹⁰, oxadiazole²¹¹, oxazolones²¹², tetraketones types²¹³, 1,3-selenazol-4-one derivatives ²¹⁴, Selenourea derivatives²¹⁵, Selenium-containing carbohydrates²¹⁶, 4,4-Dihyldroxybiphenyl²¹⁷, glucoside derivatives from the fruit of Pyracantha fortuneana²¹⁸

In addition to directly inhibiting tyrosinase activity, 4,4′-dihyldroxybiphenyl was also found to suppress several cellular key parameters in the melanogenic pathway by downregulating the cAMP-dependent protein kinase K signaling pathway and decreasing gene expression of microphthalmia transcription factor, which in turn suppressed tyrosinase expression²¹⁹, S-phenyl N-phenylthiocarbamate²²⁰, 4-(2′,4′-dihydroxyphenyl)-(E)-3-buten-2-one.²²¹

Irreversible inactivators can form irreversible covalent bond with the target enzyme and then inactivate it. They are generally specific for tyrosinase and do not inactivate all proteins, they work by specifically altering the active site of the enzyme²²², including Captopril, an antihypertensive drug [(2S)-1-(3-mercapto-2-methylpropionyl)-L-proline], forms both a copper-captopril complex and a disulfide bond between captopril and cysteinerich domains at the active site of tyrosinase²²³ also as an inactivator of several copper-containing enzymes, such as dopamine 1beta-monooxygenase²²⁴ and mushroom tyrosinase²²⁵, Cetylpyridinium chloride²²⁷, 3,5-dihydroxyphenyl decanoate²²⁸, p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol showed binding capability of mushroom tyrosinase and irreversibly inhibited the enzyme²²⁹, Hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) inhibited mushroom tyrosinase with a reversibly and irreversibly mixed inhibition mechanism²¹¹

Chemical structures of irreversible tyrosinase inhibitors:

These substrates belong to a special class. It is known that tyrosinase could be irreversibly inhibited by its o-diphenol substrates, such as L-dopa and catechol²³¹. These substrates were also named suicide substrates or mechanism-based inhibitors. The mechanism of the suicide substrate has been extensively studied by Waley²³², 7,8.4′-trihydroxyisoflavone and 5,7.8,4¹-tetrahydroxyisoflavone are potent and unique suicide substrates of mushroom tyrosinase¹²⁰, and 5,7,8,4′-tetrahydroxyisoflavone is the most potent suicide substrate of mushroom tyrosinase until now and has high potential in application as a skin-whitening agent²³⁶.

It has been found that in humans eye color is directly dependent upon the amount of pigment granules of melanin and the amount of melanin in melanocytes of the iris stroma. For example, with little or no pigment the eye looks blue, with more pigment the eye looks green, with more pigment the eye looks hazel and even more pigment yields brown or black color.

Duplicating and greatly expediting the natural process of depigmentation of the iris requires many disparate approaches and techniques. Multiple steps of melanogenesis may need to be addressed and inhibited. This may include stopping the sympathetic or other parasympathetic nerve impulses from reaching the melanocytes, blocking the conversion of tyrosine to eumelanin, and interfering with the various means of melanin production, such as inhibiting the cyclooxigenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme and melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH), or other biological processes. One major advantage of the iridial melanocytes is that access to the melanocytes themselves and their underlying synaptic connections is easily achieved by continuity with the fluid in the aqueous humor in the anterior compartment of the eye, since the anterior iris lacks an epithelium or basement membrane. This leaves the iridial melanoctyes bathed in and completely exposed to the aqueous humor environment.

In addition to inhibition of tyrosinase catalytic activity, other approaches to decrease iris pigmentation include denervation of melanocytes, inhibition of tyrosinase mRNA transcription, aberration of tyrosinase glycosylation and maturation, acceleration of tyrosinase degradation, interference with melanosome PH, maturation, and pigment accumulation, and inhibition of inflammation-induced melanogenic response.

In one embodiment, a method and system are described for inducing ocular hypopigmentation of the eye, in other words, decreasing or altering the pigmentation of the conjunctiva or iris, or both. The novel method involves the use of a known drug, hydroquinone that has not heretofore been known to have been used for inducing hypopigmentation in the eye, in either the conjunctiva or iris. (http://www.drugs.com/cdi/hydroquinone-cream.html; http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Detail Chemical.jsp.Recid-PC35626). The use of hydroquinone in a technique or composition non-toxic to the eye can result in making the white part of the eyes very white and lightening the otherwise darkening color of the iris during current treatment protocols for glaucoma based upon prostaglandin analogs. Whiter eyes are a desirable symbol of youthfulness and therefore highly acceptable to an aging population.

In one embodiment. a human subject is treated with 1% Memantine, 0.5% Thymoxamine, 10% Oxyresveratrol, and 2% Pilocarpine.

In another embodiment a human subject is treated with 2% Memantine, 1% Thymoxamine, 0.09% Bromfenac. and 20% Oxyresveratrol.

In yet another embodiment, a human subject is treated with 1% Memantine, 0.09% Bromfenac, 0.5% Thymoxamine, 5% H89, and 0.5% Naloxone.

In yet another embodiment, a human subject is treated with 1-Latanoprost ophthalmic solution 0.005%, 2-Forskolin eye drop 1%, and 3-Ophthalmic suspension of 1-oleoyl-2acetyl-glycerol 0.5%.

In studies of macular degeneration it has been shown that there is a significant association between light iris color, fundus pigmentation and the incidence of macular degeneration. It is known that zinc will bind to melanin in pigmented tissues and will thereby enhance antioxidant capacity as a cofactor or gene expression factor of antioxidant enzymes in the eye. This has been shown in an investigation of the uptake and storage of zinc in human irides, namely irides of blue and brown human eyes. In one study, the irides were incubated with concentrations of zinc chloride and tissue specimens were examined for the storage of zinc. It was found that the melanocytes count was significantly higher in brown tissues. No significant storage of zinc was found in blue colored irides. It was concluded that zinc uptake is dependent upon the extent of pigmentation in the iris of the human eye. Accordingly, the degree of pigmentation of a patient's eyes must be considered with respect to the effectiveness of a possible treatment for macular degeneration with a zinc supplementation. A significant aspect of this study is the conclusion that zinc uptake is more prevalent with respect to darker pigmentation or discoloration of the conjunctiva or iris of the eye. However, for the purpose of altering eye color, a delivery system using zinc to provide color-altering compositions to the conjunctiva and iris of the eye has not heretofore been realized. Similarly, with respect to altering the color of the skin and hair, there have heretofore been available only topical applications of a large variety of compositions, with limited effectiveness and longevity.

Drug delivery systems (DDS) based upon using nanoparticles to carry drugs have been known heretofore (http://www.nano.gatech.edu/about; http://web.mitedu/newsoffice/2008/nanocell-0609.html; http://www.scientistlive.com/European-Science-News“Nanotechnology/Melanoma_destroying). Nanoparticles are structures that have a large capacity for carrying drugs and can incorporate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances. Nanoparticles have been used as drug carriers for hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances for many years, and have been found feasible for various routes of administration. Nanoparticles are also known to allow controlled drug release over therapeutically appropriate periods of time.

There have been many instances of nanoparticle Drug Delivery Systems (DDS) that transport toxic medications safely to targeted tissue without affecting the surrounding tissue. Examples include a Tuberculosis (TB) drug delivery system¹⁷, cancer treatment¹⁶, and fungal infections²². Nanoparticles have been used to target cancer tumors or other sources of disease, such as tuberculosis. Nanoparticle-based drug-delivery systems have also demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of breast cancer. For example, tamoxifen encapsulated in polyethylene glycol molecules has been used for penetrating tumors. Inorganic nanoshells can be combined with and carry bioactive biomolecules for targeted tumor penetration and photothermal-based anticancer therapy. In one study concerning the eyes, polycyanoacrylate nanoparticles were used to improve the corneal penetration of hydrophilic drugs. A higher concentration of amikacin in the cornea and aqueous humor was found to be statistically significant over a control solution when the amikacin was placed in a nanoparticle formulation.

A nanoparticle DDS requires a specific mechanism to be targeted to the desired cell type. Zinc has been shown to have predilection to be absorbed by the melanocytes of the iris.⁶ Hence, zinc can be used as a tagging agent to target melanocytes, and if the drug were administered to the eye or anterior chamber specifically, the predominate uptake would likely be by iridial melanocytes. There are many types of nanoparticles or nanoshells made of zinc itself, and others that are tagged with zinc, which can be used as a transport system for transferring the above medications directly to the melanocytes of the iris without affecting the surrounding ocular tissues.

The biomedical applications for inorganic nanoparticles are relatively recent. Inorganic nanoparticles have a metal core or a metal shell that may serve as a substrate for joining with biomolecules. Single crystal zinc oxide has been formed into nanorings, having a uniform and perfect geometrical shape.

In one embodiment, ocular nanoparticles, for example of zinc oxide or other forms of zinc, may be combined with a pharmaceutically effective composition and concentration of hydroquinone and delivered to discolored eyes resulting from standard glaucoma treatments. Such nanoparticles which include zinc will, accordingly, target the melanocytes and bind to melanin in pigmented tissue. In such circumstances, there will be no toxic effect on surrounding eye tissue caused by the release of hydroquinone to cells defining the discolored tissues. The hydroquinone changes the amount of the pigment, for example, of the iris without any affect on the surrounding tissue. Ocular nanoparticles may be delivered to the eye in the form of eye drops, or may be delivered systemically.

Alternatively, ocular nanoparticles formed from a zinc compound may be used to deliver glaucoma medications directly to the ciliary bodies. Such a delivery system avoids both a toxic impact to eye tissue caused by hydroquinone, and avoids discoloration of the iris that would otherwise occur as a result of the application of glaucoma medication.

Proposed medicinal therapeutics can reach iridial melanocytes via topical administration to the eye with subsequent absorption into the anterior chamber, direct injection into the anterior chamber, or systemic administration, preferably with a method to enrich or target iridial melanocyte uptake. For example, botulinum toxin may also be used to block nerve transmission at synaptic level by transporting the toxin molecules safely with nanoparticle DDS (Drug Delivery System)¹⁶⁻¹⁸ that is conjugated in a covalent or non-covalent manner with a targeting agent such as zinc⁶⁻⁷, which is known to be preferentially taken up and stored by melanocytes. Similarly, gold nanoparticles with PEGylated anti-melanocyte antibodies have been used to treat melanoma³⁶, and a similar strategy could be employed here. When used in combination with tyrosinase inhibitors⁸, COX-2 inhibitors,⁹⁻¹¹ cholinergic agonists such as Pilocarpine, and new bleaching agents such as Zinc Glycoprotein¹²⁻¹³, and DMHF,¹⁴ depigmentation of the iris may be successfully achieved. In an embodiment, oversaturating the molecule carriers can be used to overcome the inter-cellular outward flow and maximize the transport of molecules into the anterior chamber. In another embodiment, microneedles can be used to directly inject medication into the anterior chamber to bypass the superficial part of the sclera, which is infiltrated with lymphatic draining vessels (superficial ⅓rd). In yet another embodiment, Folate receptors can also be used to carry small and large molecules inside the melanocytes. The presence of Folate Receptor-a in normal and pathological melanocytes has been identified. It has been demonstrated that Methotrexate is preferentially transported through this receptor in melanoma cells. It has also been demonstrated that cells expressing the human Folate receptor internalize a higher level of nanoparticles. (Luis Setnchez-del-Campo, Maria F. Montenegro, Juan Cabezas-Herrera and Jose Neptuno Rodriguez-Lopez, The critical role of alpha folate receptor in the resistance of melanoma to methotrexate”, Pigment Cell & Melanoma Research, (2009) Vol. 22, No. 5, Pg 588-000).

The nanoparticles can be initially surface-modified with (3-aminopropyl) trimethoxylane to form a sell-assembled monolayer and subsequently conjugated with desired medication through amidation between the carboxylic acid end groups on the medication. and the amine groups on the particle surface. Moreover, the nanoparticles should be under low pH conditions mimicking the intracellular conditions in the lysosome for case of drug delivery. (Nathan Cohler, Conroy Sun, Jassy Wang, etal.[Langmuir 2005. 21(19)]

Since melanoma is a cancer in pigmented cells, melanoma cancer has and does occur in the eye. For example, it can occur on the iris, a ciliary body or on the choroid behind the retina. Such locations for malignant melanoma have heretofore led to a very poor prognosis for survival. Nanoparticles that contain an appropriate form of zinc can be used to target cancerous pigmented cells in or around the eye and carry anti-cancer medication that would be absorbed in the melanin of the pigmented cancer cells and therefore will affect only the pigmented cancerous cells, even if it would otherwise be toxic to normal non-pigmented cells. Normal pigmented cells would not be affected by such anti-cancer therapy when the nanoparticles are adjusted for specific cancer cell receptors.

In the case of hair, nanoparticles of a suitable form of zinc and tagged with a suitable and effective form of hydroquinone can be applied topically to the scalp. The zinc targets and binds to the melanocytes in the roots of hair follicles thereby to cause the color of the hair to change. No dying of the hair to change its color would be necessary. Because zinc binds to melanin in pigmented tissue, such nanotechnology including hydroquinone may be used systemically to affect a change in the color of hair.

Similarly, an appropriate zinc nanoparticle tagged with an effective composition and concentration of hydroquinone can be used to target and bind to melanocytes in the skin, thereby to effect an alteration in the color of the pigmented cells. The hydroquinone is carried to and will act directly on the pigmented skin cells to change the color of the skin, e.g., to make it lighter in color. Hydroquinone with nanotechnology including zinc nanoparticles to target melanocytes in the skin can be topically applied to the skin as a cream. In addition, hydroquinone with nanotechnology including zinc nanoparticles to target melanocytes in the skin can be used systemically to achieve the same results. Thus, an effective nanotechnological composition can be adjusted and delivered systemically so that the zinc element binds to melanocytes of pigmented cells in the skin and the hair, thereby to permit the hydroquinone to change the color of the skin and hair simultaneously.

Of course, malignant melanoma occurs prevalently in the pigmented cells of the skin. As indicated, a zinc nanotransfer drug delivery system can be used to treat melanoma. Nanoparticles that contain an appropriate form of Zinc, can he used to target cancerous pigmented cells in the skin and carry anti-cancer medication that would be absorbed in the melanin of the pigmented cancer cells and therefore will affect only the pigmented cancerous cells even if it would otherwise be toxic to normal non-pigmented cells. Normal pigmented cells would not be affected by such anti-cancer therapy when the nanoparticles are adjusted for specific cancer cell receptors.

The fundamental structure of hair and nails is essentially the same. Accordingly, if a zinc nanoparticle is tagged with a suitable antibiotic or anti fungal drug, the targeting of pigmented nail cells by zinc nanoparticles will deliver the drug systemically to the nail as a treatment for various nail infections.

It will be understood that using nanoparticles with targeting agents such as zinc can permit using toxic medications or toxic solutions to be safely delivered to target tissues without adversely affecting other tissues. This technique can be used to deliver very toxic medications directly and safely to target pigmented cells. In addition to zinc, other targeting agents including antibody, ligand specific targeting agents, magnetic targeting agents can also be used. Furthermore, nanoparticles can be passively transported to the target tissue and deliver the small molecules. While the foregoing description involves the use of zinc nanoparticles to carry the appropriate composition of the drug of interest, other techniques may be used without departing from the scope of the invention. For example, instead of using a zinc nanoparticle, a nanoparticle carrying hydroquinone could be tagged with a zinc composition. Moreover, any drug that affects or would alter pigmentation of tissue can be used with zinc either as a tag to a zinc nanoparticle or in the form of a nanoparticle tagged with a suitable form of zinc. Different drugs such as antibiotics or a composition of tyrosinase inhibitors can be used with zinc in various treatment protocols.

In an embodiment, a method consists of introducing to pigmented tissue a pharmaceutically acceptable toxic or non-toxic solution of hydroquinone or suitable derivative thereof Hydroquinone is a reducing agent soluble in water. Hydroquinone is known heretofore to be used as a topical application to the skin for whitening or reducing the color of skin. Hydroquinone has not been known heretofore to be used as or as part of an ophthalmic drug delivery system for the eye either in an appropriate eye drop solution or as a compositional time-release coating for inserts to the eye. Nor has hydroquinone been known to be used heretofore as a nanoparticle tagged with a suitable zinc composition nor associated with a suitable nanoparticle of zinc to bind to the melanocytes in the pigmented skin of the eye, hair, skin or nails.

In a carrier appropriate for the eye, hydroquinone will have the effect of reducing pigmentation in ocular melanocytes, as well as lightening the color of the iris, thereby reversing the darkening, effect of glaucoma medications and improving cosmetic affects and possibly assisting in the treatment of heterochromia in an appropriate eye drop solution. As indicated, a nanoparticle transport system may be used to deliver glaucoma medications directly to the ciliary bodies to avoid the darkening effect of some standard glaucoma medications.

The composition of hydroquinone by itself is known. Hydroquinone is also known as benzene-1,4-diol or quinol and is an aromatic organic compound which is a type of phenol, having the chemical formula C6H4(OH)₂. Its chemical structure has two hydroxyl groups bonded to a benzene ring in a para position. Its chemical structure is shown in a table attached hereto and incorporated by reference herein. It is a white granular solid at room temperature and pressure. In a pharmaceutically acceptable liquid solution, such as but not limited to water, hydroquinone or its suitable derivative may be introduced into the eye, in one embodiment as an eye drop.

In one embodiment, the method may consist of introducing into the eye a pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic composition of hydroquinone in the form of a salve, cream, emulsion, gel or other solution. Since solutions, creams, emulsions or gels consisting of hydroquinone for purposes of skin-bleaching have heretofore been found to be somewhat toxic to the eyes, existing compositions or formulations including hydroquinone therefore teach away from introducing to the pigment of the eye pharmaceutically acceptable toxic and non-toxic compositions of hydroquinone for reducing pigmentation in ocular melanocytes or reducing dark color areas formed in the conjunctiva or iris as a result of many standard glaucoma medicines. Moreover, the art does not teach or suggest the use of hydroquinone with respect to nanotechnology nor in particular the combination of hydroquinone with a suitable zinc nanoparticle or hydroquinone nanoparticles tagged with zinc to target and bind to the melanocytes in pigmented body tissue for changing pigment color. Nor does the art disclose or suggest nanotransfers of medication combined with forms of zinc for treating diseases of pigmented skin, such as malignant melanoma. Nanotransfers using zinc to target melanin in pigmented cells may be utilized to deliver toxic or non-toxic drug compositions to the targeted cells without adversely affecting healthy tissues.

In an embodiment, hydroquinone may be used in the eye as a component of a coated insert. Coaled inserts have been known heretofore to deliver other ophthalmic drugs (Sasaki et al., (2003) “One-side-coaled insert as a unique ophthalmic drug delivery system”, Journal of Controlled Release. Vol. 92(3), pages 241-747. Some inserts coated with other ophthalmic drugs have heretofore have been one-side-coaled. It may also be possible to have an insert that is coated on two sides, depending on the drug composition used, its time-release properties and its strength. In an embodiment, a pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic composition of hydroquinone or other small molecules may be used uniquely in connection with a one-sided coated insert. In such circumstances, the result is a time-release ocular and systemic absorption of the effective solution or composition of hydroquinone or other small molecules. This may result in higher drug concentrations in the aqueous humor and sclera, and lower drug concentrations in the plasma and conjunctiva than has been reported for the use of other drugs heretofore. The ocular and systemic absorption of a suitable hydroquinone composition or composite solution delivered by a one-sided-coated insert may be altered by the direction of insertion.

It will be understood that the nanoparticle transfer system and method described herein and based upon zinc or zinc compound nanoparticles may be used for any cosmetic or therapeutic treatment involving pigmented tissue without departing from the scope of the invention. Indeed, any kind of nanoparticle that is tagged with zinc can carry hydroquinone and/or anti-cancer medications, or depigmenting agents to the pigmented tissues. With respect to treatments for cancer, for example, see http://www.scientistlive.com/European-Science-News/Nanotechnology/Melanoma destroying nanospheres/21648/. Such articles and the others attached hereto are incorporated by reference.

Following the bleaching process of the iris as described herein, different methods of dying the eyes can be implemented to change the color of the eyes to varying hues and shades of color. This includes enhancing natural coloring such as deepening the blue or green hues, as well as unnatural colors such as purple, metallic gold or silver, or even fluorescent colors which glow in darkness or in black light (UV).

The following small molecules can be used for opposite effect, in order to darkening the color of the eye or reverse the previously lightened eye.

-   -   Topical prostaglandin (PG) F2a analogues are potent medications         for managing elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). One side         effect of these drugs is a darkening of iris color. (Zhan et         al., 2003).     -   Forskolin (Naturally occurring molecule) and         isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX) (Synthetic compound) are known to         regulate adenylyl cyclase and phosphodiestherases, resulting in         an increase in melanin biosynthesis in melanocytes. (Brian R. et         al., 200⁹).     -   I -oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol, or OAG,(the naturally-occurring) and         1,2-diacylglycerol, (synthetic, or DAG). DAG's analogues and         derivatives are able to induce melanin synthesis and thus         produce an increase in melanin content in melanocytes.(U.S. Pat.         No. 5,352,440).     -   Lotus (Nelumbo nuficecra) flower essential oil increased         melanogenesis in normal human melanocytes (Songliee Jeon et al.,         July 2009).

The subject application describes a method of lightening the color of the iris of a human subject. In this method, a composition of a tyrosinase inhibitor is administered to the iris of a human subject in an amount effective to lighten the color of the iris.

In an embodiment of the method, the tyrosinase inhibitor is hydroquinone, Oxyresveratrol or tetrahydroxyisoflavone, preferably hydroquinone.

In another embodiment of the method, the composition can also contain at least one melanogenesis inhibitor, which are selected from the group of a glutamate receptor blocker (e.g. memantine), an a-adrenergic blocker (e.g. thymoxamine), a matrix metalloproteinases inhibitor (e.g. prinomastat), a Cox inhibitor (e.g. bromfenac), a cholinergic agonist (e.g. pilocarpine), a downregulator of mitt, tyr &Trp1 (e.g. Haginin A or 4,4′-dihyldroxybiphenyl), an acidifier of melanosomes (e.g. H89), an opioid receptor antagonist (e.g. naloxone), a Pmel 17 blocker (e.g. calmodulin inhibitors), and a fibroblast growth factor inhibitor. In particular, the composition contains hydroquinone, memantine and Haginin A; oxyresveratrol, 4,4′-dihyldroxybiphenyl and H89; or tetrahydroxyisoflavone, prinomastat and naloxone.

In yet another embodiment of the method, the composition can be administered to a human subject in conjunction with an injection of saline, siRNA, botulinum toxin, or a combination of botulinum toxin and siRNA.

The methods described herein can be administered through a nanoparticle drug delivery system containing a targeting agent of iridial melanocytes. The targeting agents include a composition of zinc, antibody, ligand specific targeting agents, magnetic targeting agents, preferably Iron a composition of zinc such as zinc oxide or Gold. The composition described herein can be in the form of eye drops or an ophthalmic drug delivery system such as salves, creams, emulsions and gels. The composition described herein can be administered in the fornices under the eyelid or as a time-release coated insert which is coated on at least one side.

The method described herein can be administered to a healthy human or a human subject afflicted with glaucoma.

The subject application also describes a method introducing pigment to the iris of a human subject. In this method, at least one melanogenesis promoter is administered to the iris of a human subject in an amount effective to introduce pigments to the iris. The iris of the human subject becomes darker idler such treatment.

In an embodiment of the method, the melanogenesis promoter includes prostaglandin, forskolin, 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol and 1.2.-diacetylglycerol, and lotus flower essential oil.

The subject application further describes a method of introducing pigments to the iris of a human subject. In this method, a composition comprising a biological dye is administered to the iris of a human subject in an amount effective to introduce pigments to the iris. In an embodiment, the biological dye is Trypan Blue or a Methyl green biological dye.

In another embodiment of the method, the composition can also contain fluorescein. The iris of the human subject changes color and/or glows after such treatment.

In yet another embodiment of the method, the composition is administered through a nanoparticle drug delivery system containing a targeting agent of iridial melanocytes; preferably the targeting agent is a composition of zinc such as zinc oxide, Iron or Gold.

The subject application yet further describes a nanoparticle composition for lightening pigmented tissues. This nanoparticle composition contains a targeting agent of melanocytes chemically bound to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a tyrosinase inhibitor. The targeting agents include a composition of zinc, antibody, ligand specific targeting agents, magnetic targeting agents, preferably a composition of Iron zinc such as zinc oxide or Gold.

In an embodiment of the nanoparticle composition, the tyrosinase inhibitor is hydroquinone, oxyresveratrol or tetrahydroxyisoflavone, preferably hydroquinone.

In another embodiment of the nanoparticle composition, the pharmaceutical composition can also contain at least one melanogenesis inhibitor.

In yet another embodiment of the nanoparticle composition, the pigmented tissues are skin or hair tissues.

In yet another embodiment, the nanoparticle composition is in the form of an injectable solution or a topically applied solution.

The subject application yet further describes a method for lightening pigmented tissuess of a human subject. In this method, the nanoparticle composition described herein is administered to the human subject so as to lighten the pigmented tissues.

The subject application yet further describes another nanoparticle composition for treating a pigmented tissue related disease. This nanoparticle composition contains a targeting agent of melanocyte chemically bound to a pharmaceutical composition containing an active agent for the disease The targeting agents include a composition of zinc, antibody, ligand specific targeting agents. magnetic targeting agents, preferably a composition of Iron, zinc such as zinc oxide and Gold.

In an embodiment of the method, the disease is glaucoma or melanoma cancer.

The subject application yet further describes a method for treating a pigmented tissue related disease. In this method, the nanoparticle composition described herein is administered to a human subject afflicted with a pigmented tissue related disease so as to treat the disease and pigmented cancer cells such as Melanoma. It has been demonstrated that MITF Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor) is an amplified oncogene of human melanomas and that it also has an oncogenic role in human clear cell sarcoma. MITF is a major contributor of pigment formation in both healthy and cancerous pigmented cells. For these reasons downregulation of the MITF can be applied to both healthy pigmented cells to change the color of the tissue, or to the cancer cells to stop the growth of the tumor.

In the methods described herein, the targeting agent binds to cells of the pigmented tissues to permit the release of the pharmaceutical composition directly into the cells of the pigmented tissue without affecting non-pigmented cells.

The subject application yet further describes a method of depigmenting the iris melanocytes to lighten the color of the iris. This method includes the use of one or more of the following steps:

-   -   Blocking the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve supply to the         melanocytes using botulinum toxin and memantine;     -   Preventing tyrosine conversion to melanin by one of available         tyrosinase inhibitors;     -   Preventing Melanocyte-stimulating hormone activation (MSH) by         using 2,5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (DMHF);     -   Inhibiting the COX-2 enzyme using NSAIDS;     -   Preventing melanogenesis by using a cholinergic agonist;     -   Blocking Alpha 1-adrenergic receptors by using antagonist         chemicals;     -   Transcriptional regulation of Melanogenic Enzymes by         downregulation of MITF by Transforming Growth Factor (TGF.) Beta         Family; and     -   Post-Transcriptional Modification of Melanogenic Enzymes by         Inhibiting Nglycolysation of melanosomal enzymes.

As used herein, a melanogenesis inhibitor refers to a compound that inhibits any step of melanogenesis. For example, a melanogenesis inhibitor inhibits conversion from

Dopaquinone to 5-S-Cysteinyldopa; conversion from 5-S-Cysteinyldopa to 5-S-Cysteinyklopa, conversion from 5-S-Cysteinyklopa to Benxothiazine intermediaries, conversion from Benxothiazine intermediaries to Pheomelanin, conversion from 5-S-Cysteinyklopa to Pheomelanin, conversion from 5-S-Cysteinyklopa to Pheomelanin, conversion from Dopaquinone to Leucodopachrome, conversion from Dopaquinone to Eumelanin, conversion from Leucodopachrome to Eumelanin, conversion from Leucodopachrome to Dopachrome, conversion from Leucodopachrome to Dopachrome, conversion from Dopachrome to Eumelanin, conversion from Dopachrome to 5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid, conversion from Dopachrome to 5,6-Dihydroxyindole, conversion from 5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid to Eumelanin, conversion from 5 6-Dihydroxyindole to Eumelanin, conversion from 5,6-Dihydroxyindole to Indole-5,6-quinonecarboxylic acid, or conversion from Indole-5,6-quinone to Eumelanin. A melanogenesis inhibitor also optionally includes Tyrosinase inhibitors, which inhibit conversion from Tyrosine to Dopa or from Dopa to Tyrosinase.

As used herein, a melanogenesis promoter refers to a compound that activates any step of melanogenesis. For example, a melanogenesis promoter activates conversion from Dopaquinone to 5-S-Cysteinyldopa; conversion from 5-S-Cysteinyldopa to 5-SCysteinyklopa, conversion from 5-S-Cysteinyklopa to Benxothiazine intermediaries, conversion from Benxothiazine intermediaries to Pheomelanin, conversion from 5-SCysteinyklopa to Pheomelanin, conversion from 5-S-Cysteinyklopa to Pheomelanin, conversion from Dopaquinone to Leucodopachrome, conversion from Dopaquinone to Eumelanin, conversion from Leucodopachrome to Eumelanin, conversion from Leucodopachrome to Dopachrome, conversion from Leucodopachrome to Dopachrome, conversion from Dopachrome to Eumelanin, conversion from Dopachrome to 5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid, conversion from Dopachrome to 5,6-Dihydroxyindole, conversion from 5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid to Eumelanin, conversion from 5,6-Dihydroxyindole to Eumelanin, conversion from 5,6-Dihydroxyindole to Indole-5,6-quinonecarboxylic acid, or conversion from Indole-5,6-quinone to Eumelanin. A melanogenesis promoter also activates conversion from Tyrosine to Dopa or from Dopa to Tyrosinase.

As used herein, a targeting agent of a certain cell type (e.g. melanocytes) refers to an agent (e.g. a molecule or a composition of a molecule), which is preferential taken up and stored by the cell type.

As used herein, a targeting agent “chemically bound” to a pharmaceutical agent refers to the targeting agent is conjugated with the pharmaceutical agent in a covalent or non-covalent manner.

As used herein, a pigmented tissue related disease refers to a disease in which diseased cells reside in pigmented tissues or tissues that contains pigment molecules (Melanin).

This invention will be better understood from the experimental details that follow. However, one skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the specific methods and results discussed are merely illustrative of the invention as described more fully in the claims that follow thereafter.

Experimental Details

-   -   Bleaching     -   Active Agents     -   The following list contains a partial list of drugs can be         tested for use in bleaching and/or coloring.     -   Tyrosinase inhibitor*     -   Glutamate receptor blocker (Memantine)(CAS)     -   Adrenergic blocker (Thymoxamine)(CAS)     -   Cox inhibitor (Bromfenac)*     -   Cholinergic agonist (Pilocarpine)(CAO)     -   Downregulator of mitf, tyr &Trp1 (Haginin A)(CAD)*     -   Acidifier of melanosomes (H89)*     -   Matrix metalloproteinases inhibitor (prinomastat)     -   Opioid receptor antagonist (Naloxone)*     -   Pmel 17 blocker (Calmodulin inhibitors)*     -   MITF downregulation (by TGF beta family such as TGF-beta-1 & TGF         beta-2)     -   Post-Translational Modification of Melanogenic Enzymes         (N-Glycosylation Inhibitors)     -   Fibroblast growth factor inhibitor*     -   siRNA gene silencing

Various combinations of the drugs are tested using cell culture in vitro (*) and the most effective combinations are chosen for animal studies.

-   -   In animal studies, the most effective combinations from In vitro         studies are used in conjunction with various combinations of the         remaining therapies (those not marked with *).     -   Transport System     -   The following is a list of methods that can be used to deliver         to the iris of any one or any combination of the above listed         small molecules.     -   Topical (A. S. Mundada, Pharmalnfo.net, Vol. 6, Issue I, 2008)     -   Conventional     -   Ointments     -   Solutions     -   Suspensions     -   Gels     -   Emulsions     -   Inserts (erodible and non-erodible)     -   Recent     -   Penetration Enhancers     -   Mucoadhesive Polymers     -   In Situ gelling systems     -   Colloidal systems     -   Iontophorosis     -   Nanoparticles (e.g. Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes, Liposomes,         Nanoshells, Dendrimers, Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles.         Nanorods, Quantum Dots)     -   Injectable (subconjunctival, subtenon, into the anterior         chamber, intravitreal. intravenous)     -   Solutions     -   Suspensions     -   Gels     -   Emulsions     -   Inserts     -   Nanoparticles     -   Targeting and Vehicles     -   The following is a sampling of targeting mechanisms and vehicles         used that could be used to deliver to specific target cells or         organelles, i.e. melanocytes or melanosomes via topical eye         drops or microneedle injection. Once the vehicle is delivered to         the destination, it can be released through various means, such         as photodynamic therapy (PDT) (Drug Discov. Today. 2008         February; 13(3-4): 12/1 134), pH sensitive drug delivery         (Journal of Controlled Release, Volume 103, Issue 1, 2 March         2005, Pages 137-148), and thermally sensitive drug delivery         (K. S. Soppimath, D. C.-W. Tan, Y.-Y. Yang, pH-Triggered         Thermally Responsive Polymer Core-Shell Nanoparticles for Drug         Delivery, Volume 17 Issue 3, Pages 318-323) or laser activated         nanoparticles (Dimitri Laptco et al, Cancer letters 2006)     -   Containers     -   Positively Charged Dendrimers     -   Positively charged Dendrimers cause membrane defects, which leak         cellular proteins and through which particles can pass.     -   Liposomes     -   “Liposomes are microscopic and submicroscopic vesicles with         sizes ranging from 10 nm to 20 um. They are usually made up of         phospholipids, although other amphiphiles such as nonionic         surfactants can also be employed for their construction. When         phospholipids are hydrated, they spontaneously form spherical         lipid bilayers enclosing the aqueous medium and the solute.         Liposomes offer several advantages over other delivery systems         including biocompatibility, control of biological properties via         modification of physical properties e.g., lipid composition         vesicle size, lipid membrane fluidity etc.) and several modes         for drug delivery to cells (e.g., absorption, fusion,         endocytosis, phagocytosis). Liposomes can be classified         according to the number of the lipid bilayers as unilamellar         vesicles (ULVs) and multilamellar vesicles (MLVs).         Functionalized liposomes can be synthesized using peptides and         oligosaccharides in order to achieve both targeting and         circulation longevity. Peptides can be used in order to guide         liposomes to desired receptors whereas, poly (ethylene oxide)         (PEO)-grafted phospholipids are known to dramatically increase         liposome survival in the circulation. A surface modified         liposomal drug delivery vehicle can be developed for selective         targeting by coupling an argentine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD)         peptide to the liposome through a PEO spacer.⁴⁹     -   Cell penetrating peptides     -   Cell penetrating peptides are short peptides that facilitate         cellular uptake of molecular cargo from small molecules to         nanoparticles and large DNA fragments. “Various in vitro and in         vivo studies have proved the potential of cell-penetrating         peptides (CPPs), including TAT peptide (TATp) and         oligoarginines, for the intracellular delivery of different         cargoes. TATp-mediated cytoplasmic uptake of polymers (Nori et         al. 2003; Hyndman et al. 2004), bacteriophages (Paschke et al.         2005), plasmid DNA (Torchilin et al. 2001, 2003; Kleemann et al.         2005), magnetic nanoparticles (Dodd et al. 2001; Zhao et al.         2002; Nitin et al. 2004), liposomes (Cryan et al. 2006; Sawant         et al. 2006; Gupta et al. 2007), and micelles (Sawant et al.         2006; Sethuraman et al. 2007, 2008) has been reported.         Successful intracellular delivery requires direct contact         between the surface-attached CPPs on the pharmaceutical         nanocarrier and the cell surface” (Torchilin et al. 2001;         Levchenko et al. 2003     -   Receptor-mediated Endocytosis     -   Receptor-mediated Endocytosis is a process by which cells         internalize molecules by the inward budding of plasma membrane         vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites which         specifically bind to the molecules being internalized. (Nature         Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 6, 112-126 (February 2005)1         doi:10.1038/nrm1571)     -   Targeting Agent     -   Zinc     -   The high concentration of Zn (II) ion inside the melanosomes may         create a good target for a transport system utilizing zinc         fingers (ligands) to deliver a payload of drugs specifically to         the melanosomes.     -   “Zinc is a feature trace element of pigment cells and tissues.         Organelles, in which melanin is synthesized and stored. i.e.         melanosomes, represent a zinc reservoir at the subcellular         level. In order to understand function of metals in tissues,         cells and their constituents, knowledge is needed on metal         interactions with intracellular targets. The possible zinc         ligands in pigment cells include melanin, metallothionein,         melanotransferrin, 8700 and related proteins, ferritin, zinc         enzymes and low molecular weight ligands. Areas of a special         interest in relation of pigment cells and structures to         zinc—such as zinc effect on melanogenesis, zinc excretion and         buffering by melanosomes, zinc function in free radical         processes as well as zinc role in melanomas—have been reviewed.         High level of zinc in pigment cells may indicate a physiological         defense against the potential danger of oxidative stress.⁵⁰     -   Antibodies     -   Antibodies to Melanin can be used to specifically target         Melanosomes. Antibodies currently under investigation or in use         include melanin-binding IgM antibody from Goodwin Biotechnology         Inc., murine monoclonal antibodies ⁵¹, and monoclonal antibody         6D2⁵².     -   Depending on the drug to be delivered, different methods can be         used to associate the drug with the antibody, such as         .Polymer(H1)⁵³⁻⁵⁴, Liposome⁵⁵, and Dendrimers⁵⁵     -   Coloring and Texturing     -   Using the transport and targeting systems described herein,         pigments and/or dyes (including fluorescent, metallic, and other         dyes and pigments) or other chemicals are introduced, to change         directly or indirectly the appearance of the iris.     -   If the natural color of the eye does not permit the desired         change, then bleaching step as described herein may be done         prior to or in conjunction with the texturing and coloring.     -   Targeting     -   Unlike in Bleaching step described herein, our targets are         expanded to include connective tissue or the anterior surface of         the iris, including collagen⁵, fibroblasts, interstitial matrix,         and vascular tissue. The targeting mechanism has very high         specificity for the above targets in order to prevent unwanted         color change of the other parts of the eye including the cornea         and the lens. This is achieved through selection of the         appropriate antibodies, collagen adhesives (U.S. Pat. No.         5,219,895), and tissue adhesives⁵⁸.     -   Containers     -   Common biological stains and/or Fluorescent materials such as         Fluorescein sodium dye are encapsulated in nanoparticles such as         liposomes as described herein, and targeted with mechanisms         explained above.     -   Standard techniques for loading the dye cargo into the liposomes         can be used

EXAMPLE 1. CELL CULTURES

Typical cell culture methods and measurement of tyrosinase activity and statistical analysis may be employed, as described in Yeon Mi Kin et al⁶⁶.

-   -   Culture of Murine Melanoma B-16     -   The cells can be grown in DMEM (13.4 mg/ml Dulbecco's modified         Eagle's medium, 24 mM NaHCO3, 10 mM HEPES, 143 units/ml         penicillin G potassium, 100 μg/ml streptomycin sulfate, pH 7.1)         containing 10% FBS with 5% CO2 at 37° C. When the cells are         confluent, PBS buffer (0.2 M NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM NaH2PO4,         1.8 mM K2HPO₄) containing 0.25% trypsin and 0.02% EDTA can be         added to detach the melanoma cells from a culture dish. The         detached cell suspension can be 10-fold diluted with DMEM         containing 10% FBS and then centrifuged at 250×g for 10 min at         4° C. After washing with DMEM twice, melanoma cells can be         resuspended in DMEM containing 10% FBS, and their numbers         counted by using a microscope to check the viability of the         melanoma cells. The cells can be diluted to 2×105 cells/culture         dish (100 mm in diameter) for passage and then incubated with 5%         CO2 at 37° C. for 3 days.     -   Culture of Normal Human Iris Stromal Melanocytes     -   The cells from the anterior surface of the iris will be         dissected from a fresh donor eye from the Eye Bank.     -   The processing and harvesting techniques are as in standard         manner as described in Journal of Cellular Physiology (Mark R.         Pittlecow et al 2005) and the above details. Measurement of         Tyrosinase Activity     -   L-Tyrosine oxidation by tyrosinase is spectrophotometrically         determined.¹⁻² Forty microliters of 25 mM L-tyrosine, 80 id of         67 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.8), and 40 ul of the same         buffer with or without test sample are added to a 96-well plate,         and then 40 of tyrosinase is mixed. The initial rate of         dopachrome formation from the reaction mixture is determined as         the increase of absorbance at wavelength 492 nm per min (AA         492/min) by using a Molecular Devices microplate reader. The         Michaelis-Menten constant (K m) and maximal velocity (V max) of         tyrosinase are determined by Lineweaver-Burk plot with various         concentrations of L-tyrosine as a substrate.

Measurement of Promoter Activity of Murine Tyrosinase Gene

-   -   Murine Melanoma B-16 cells (6×104) transfected with luciferase         expression vector pGL2 containing the full-length promoter of         murine tyrosinase is grown in DMEM containing 10% FBS with 5%         CO2 at 37° C. for 24 h. After washing with PBS buffer, the cells         are incubated with or without test sample for 6 h before         harvesting. Luciferase activity in cell lysates is determined         using a luciferase assay system (Promega) following the         supplier's instructions. The light intensity is measured with a         luminometer. Protein concentration is determined by the Bradford         method with bovine serum albumin as a standard.

Statistics

-   -   Effects on tyrosinase by test samples are represented as         inhibition % of {1-((sample deltaA 492/min))/(control deltaA         492/min))}×100 or control % of ((sample deltaA 492/min)/(control         deltaA 492/min))×100. Data shall be collected as means±S.E. of         three independent tests, and significant differences from the         control is analyzed by the Student's t-test.

Procedures and Results

-   -   The effects of different chemical compounds are investigated         using cell suspensions of uveal melanocytes and culture of         murine melanoma cells, B16-FI and/or NHIMC. The cells are         treated with different concentrations of specific medications         and compounds described above for 72 h. Extracellular melanin is         measured directly by collecting the tissue culture supernatants         and taking absorbance at 490 nm. The melanin content can be         measured using any of the previously reported methods (Tadokoro,         T, et al, J. Invest. Dermatol. 124, 1326-1332). Briefly, the         cultured cells are solubilized in lysis buffer (1% Nonidet P-40;         Calbiochem, San Diego, Calif., USA; in PBS containing a protease         inhibitor cocktail; Roche, Indianapolis, Ind., USA) for 1 h on         ice with occasional vortexing, and protein concentrations is         measured with a bicinconinic acid kit (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.,         USA). Melanin pellets were dissolved by incubation in NaOH at         37° C. for 18 h. Aliquots of each sample were transferred to         96-well plates, quantitated by absorbance at 405 nm using an         automatic microplate reader (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale,         Calif., USA), and calibrated against a standard curve generated         using synthetic melanin (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo., USA).

Viability of cells is measured using standard tetrazoliumreduction assays that are based on redox potential of live cells. Treatment of cultured above mentioned melanocytes with designated medications for up to 6 d can reveal any cytotoxicity. (Terry L. Riss, Richard A. Moravec. ASSAY and Drug Development Technologies. February 2004, 2(1): 51-62. doi:10.1089/154065804322966315).

Results from tyrosinase activity, promoters activity and cell viability of tyrosinase inhibitors and all the categories that has been described above, can be obtained in order to process the necessary steps to choose the best combination for the animal study.

EXAMPLE 2. ANIMAL STUDY

Wild caught young adult female cynomolgus monkeys of any ages, weighing 2-3 kg, can be used for the study. Typically these animals have yellowish-orange iris color, with individual-to-individual differences in hue. The animals chosen shall have no detectable heterochromia between the eyes at baseline. The animals are euthanized after 25 or 38 weeks of treatment with a mixture of pentobarbital and ethanol, and the eyes are enucleated. The eyes are opened and the irides carefully excised, washed with PBS, and placed with the pigment epithelial side up in PBS on tissue paper. The pigment epithelium is carefully removed, rinsed in PBS, and wet weight determined. The tissue is kept frozen until analyzed for melanin.

The comparison of the treated and not treated eye of each individual animal is evaluated and documented to obtain the best combination possible for human study selection.

Prior to euthanasia, color photographs of the iris of both eyes of each animal (1:1 magnification) are taken at baseline, and at regular intervals thereafter through 6 weeks, using a calibrated digital color camera system. Photographs are of each eye with a calibration plate and an animal identifier repeated every week. After color correction based on the calibration plates, the histograms of the iris portion of the photos are recorded, to be compared to reveal color shifts using peak detection in the hue and luminance histograms.

Determining the minimum shift required to qualify for a significant iris color change is done independent of the above, and can be done by the following method.

A set of 50 headshots of different people with different eye colors is obtained. 20 human subjects are shown each photo, immediately followed by the same photo manipulated using editing software to shift the peaks of the hue and luminance of the iris by a random amount. The subject is then asked if they notice what they would consider a significant color change in the eyes. The average of all responses is used to determine the threshold.

Analysis of the type and level of melanin in the stroma of treated and untreated control irides is achieved by a highly sensitive procedure based on alkaline hydrogen peroxide degradation, or reductive hydrolysis with hydriodic acid of the tissue, followed by HPLC quantitation of 2,3,5-pyrroletricarboxylic acid (PTCA), and isomeric aminohydroxyphenylalanines (AHPs), the specific structural markers of eumelanin and pheomelanin, respectively (GIUSEPPE PROTAI, et al., PIGMENT CELL RES 13: 147-150. 2000)

Tyrosinase activity and statistical analysis of the results is then performed as described above.

EXAMPLE 3. BLEACHING EXAMPLE 3A

A suspension with a combination of the following medication is used in this example.

-   -   Hydroquinone (Benzene-1,4-diol Tyrosinase inhibitor)     -   Liposomes and/or micelle nanoparticles with Hydroquinone-loaded         multilamellar vesicles (MLVs) that are encapsulated in         poly-lactic-coglycolic acid (PLGA) microparticles     -   Memantine (1-amino-3,5-dimethyl-adaniantane. glutamate receptor         blocker)     -   Haginin A (an isoflav-3-ene, downregulator of mitf, tyr, and         Trp1)     -   The following four groups of animals are studied:

Group 1: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of saline.

Group 2: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of siRNA.

Group 3: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of botulinum toxin.

Group 4: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of botulinum toxin and siRNA.

The left eye will be the control for the drops in Group 1, and Group 1 (with saline injection) will be the control group for the injections. We then select the best result.

The change in the color of the treated right eye within 2 weeks of starting the treatment is observed. The decrease pigmentation appears as a lighter color eye compared to the untreated left eye. By the end of 3 months of treatment significant color change is observed. At this point the maintenance therapy can be initiated.

EXAMPLE 3B

A suspension with a combination of the following medication is used in this example.

-   -   Oxyresveratrol (Tyrosinase inhibitor)     -   4,4′-dihyldroxybiphenyl (downregulator of cAMP-dependent protein         kinase K and mitf)     -   H89 (Melanosome acidification)

The following four groups of animals are studied:

Group 1: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of saline.

Group 2: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of siRNA.

Group 3: One drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of botulinum toxin.

Group one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of botulinum toxin and siRNA.

The left eye will be the control for the drops in Group 1, and Group 1 (with saline injection) will be the control group for the injections. We then select the best result.

The change in the color of the treated right eye within 2 weeks of starting the treatment is observed. The decrease pigmentation appears as a lighter color eye compared to the untreated left eye. By the end of 3 months of treatment significant color change is observed. At this point the maintenance therapy can be initiated.

EXAMPLE 3C

A suspension with a combination of the following medication is used in this example.

-   -   Tetrahydroxyisoflavone (Suicide substrate)     -   Prinomastat (matrix metalloproteinases inhibitor)     -   Naloxone (Opioid receptor antagonist)

The following four groups of animals are studied:

Group 1: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of saline.

Group 2: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of siRNA.

Group 3: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of botulinum toxin.

Group 4: one drop of the formulation above, twice a day (always in the right eye, with the left eye being the control), in conjunction with an injection of botulinum toxin and siRNA.

The left eye will be the control for the drops in Group 1, and Group 1 (with saline injection) will be the control group for the injections. We then select the best result.

The change in the color of the treated right eye within 2 weeks of starting the treatment is observed. The decrease pigmentation appears as a lighter color eye compared to the untreated left eye. By the end of 3 months of treatment maximum color change is observed. At this point the maintenance therapy can be initiated.

EXAMPLE 3D

A thirty three year old female patient presents with heterochromia due to Homer's syndrome, complaining of differing eye colors. The darker eye is treated with eye drops containing 1% Memantine, 0.5% Thymoxamine, 10% Oxyresveratrol, and 2% Pilocarpine, one drop twice a day. In addition, injections of nanoparticle targeted botulinum toxin every three months are given using microneedles. Over time the darker eye lightens to resolve heterochromia. Maintenance drug therapy will continue, one drop twice a day, twice a week. The heterochromia does not redevelop.

EXAMPLE 3E

A fifty seven year old male patient presents with glaucoma in one eye, complaining of disparity of eye color due to use of prostaglandin analog for treatment of glaucoma. The darker eye is treated with eye drops containing 2% Memantine, 1% Thymoxamine, .09% Bromfenac, and 20% Oxyresveratrol. Over time the darker eye lightens to resolve the disparity in eye color. The patient will have to continue the treatment as long as they are using prostaglandin analog.

EXAMPLE 3F

A thirty-year-old female presents in the office with the request for lighter color eyes for cosmetic reasons. She mentions that all her life she wishes she had light colored eyes. A complete ophthalmological exam reveals no evidence of pathology or disease. She is informed of her options such as colored contact lenses and implants, and selects treatment using the following iris lightening technique. She is treated with eye drops containing 1% Memantine, 0.09% Bromfenac, 0.5% Thymoxamine, 5% H89, and 0.5% Naloxone, one drop, twice a day. In addition, injections of nanoparticle targeted botulinum toxin every three months are given using microneedles.

EXAMPLE 3G

A 24-year-old female with brown eyes presents in the office, explains as one of two identical twins she wishes to have her own separate identity, and as such desires lighter colored eyes. The ophthalmological examination reveals no evidence of pathology or disease. He is treated with the same formulation as in Example 3F with similar results.

EXAMPLE 4. COLORING AND TEXTURING

Trypan Bluc biological dye (500 nm wavelength absorption) is encapsulated in liposomes using procedure described above. The resulting liposomes are put in two batches, each batch targeting a different iris structure.

The first batch of liposomes is conjugated with a specific antibody to collagen type VI, using the referenced method in Targeting Agent sample described herein.⁵⁵

The second batch of liposomes is conjugated with Fibroblast Surface Protein (human) antibody’⁶³⁻⁶⁴. The two batches are then mixed into a single mixture to be used.

A 50:50 mixture of Methyl Green (560nm+wavelength absorption) and Fluorescein is encapsulated in liposomes using procedure explained in example 1 above, to be used to generate a glowing green color when exposed to black light, or a deeper green under normal light.

EXAMPLE 4A

A 42-year-old male with blue eyes presents in the office with the desire to change his appearance as part of the Witness Relocation Program. The ophthalmological examination revealed no evidence of pathology or disease. He is treated with a melanocyte stimulatory formulation resulting darkening of the eye to brown color.

EXAMPLE 4B

A 23-year-old female with green eyes presents in the office, requesting Fluorescein glow in her eyes due to her profession as a hostess in a nightclub. The ophthalmological examination revealed no evidence of pathology or disease. She is treated with Fluorescein filled liposome formulation as described above. After treatment her iris began to glow under black light.

EXAMPLE 4C

A 35-year-old female with light green eyes, presents in the office requesting to change her eye colors to dark brown. Initial complete ophthalmologic examination reveals no evidence of ocular pathology. She is treated with topical solutions of:

-   -   Latanoprost commercially available ophthalmic solution 0.005%         (50 ug/mL), one drop per day in each eye.     -   Forskolin Commercially available eye drop 1%, also one drop once         a day in each eye. Ophthalmic suspension of         (1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-glycerol 0.5%), one drop twice a day until         the desired color is achieved.

The color of the eye starts to darken by the first week of treatment and probably is not reversible. The treatment can be repeated in 3 months if further color darkening is desired.

EXAMPLE 4D

A 43 year old male who has been treated, with bleaching eye color treatment 2 years ago, presents to the office requesting to change the color of his eyes back to original dark brown.

Initial complete ophthalmologic examination reveals no evidence of ocular pathology. He is treated with topical solutions of:

-   -   Latanoprost commercially ophthalmic solution 0.005% (50 ug/mL),         one drop per day in each eye.     -   Forskolin Commercially available eye drop 1%, also one drop once         a day in each eye. Ophthalmic suspension of         (1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-glycerol 0.5%), one drop twice a day until         the desired color is achieved.

The color of the eye starts to darken by the first week of treatment and probably is not reversible. The treatment can be repeated in 3 months if further color darkening is desired.

EXAMPLE 4F

A 34-year-old male suffering from complications of iris color implant which has resulted in secondary surgical removal of the implants, presents to the office requesting iris color lightening treatment. He is treated with PEGylated liposomes containing TGF-beta complex with surface targeting coated specifically for the melanosomes using microneedle delivery via partial thickness in the Sclera. The treatment continues every 3 months until the desired color shade is achieved.

Conclusion

The results from above examples show that use of the methods described herein effectively changes the amount of pigment melanin in the iris stroma, and/or introduce pigments or dyes, including fluorescent or metallic, thereby altering the appearance of the iris. The subject matter of each of the references listed below is incorporated in this application by reference.

CITATIONS

-   -   Hu D N, Woodward D F, McCormic S A. Influence of Autonomic         Neurotransmitters of Human Uveal Melanocytes in vitro.         Experimental Eye Research, Vol. 71, Issue 3, September 2000, pp.         217-224     -   Mukuno K, Witmer R. Innervation of melanocytes in human iris.         Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology,         Vol. 203, Number 1/March, 1977 Dryja T P, Albert D M. Lack of         Adrenergic Influence on the Pigmentation of Iris Nevus Cells.         Archives of Ophthalmology, Vol. 98 No. 11, pp. 1902-2098         November 1980     -   Laties A M, Lerner A B. Iris colour and relationship of         tyrosinase activity to adrenergic innervation. Nature, 255,         152-153 (08 May 1975)     -   McCartney A C E, Riordan-Eva P, Howes R C, Spalton D J. Horner's         syndrome: an electron microscopic study of a human iris. British         Journal of Ophthalmology 1992; 76: 746-749     -   Kokkinou D, Kasper H U, Bartz-Schmidt K U, Schraermeyer U. The         Pigmentation of Human Iris Influences the Uptake and Storing of         Zinc Pigment Cell Research, Vol. 17, Issue 5, pp. 515-518     -   Shameer P, Prasad P V, Kaviarasan P K. Serum zinc level in         vitiligo: A case control study. Indian J Dermatol Venereol         Leprol 2005;71:206-7     -   Guyonneau L, Murisier F, Rossier A, Moulin A, Beermann F.         Melanocytes and Pigmentation are Affected in Dopachrome         Tautomerase Knockout Mice. Molecular and Cellular Biology, April         2004, pp. 3396-3403, Vol. 24, No. 8     -   Damm J, Rau T, Maihofner C, Pahi A, Brune K. Constitutive         Expression and Localization of COX-1 and COX-2 in Rabbit Iris         and Ciliary Body. Experimental Eye Research, Vol. 72, Issue 6,         June 2001, pp. 611-621     -   Wentzel P, Bergh K, Wallin O, Niemela P, Stjemschantz J.         Transcription of Prostanoid Receptor Genes and Cyclooxygenase         Enzyme Genes in Cultivated Human Iridial Melanocytes from Eyes         of Different Colours. Pigment Cell Research, Vol. 16, Issue 1,         pp. 43-49     -   Rys-Sikora K E, Konger R L, Schoggins J W, Malaviya R, Pentland         A P. Coordinate expression of secretory phospholipase A2 and         cyclooxygenase-2 in activated human keratinocytes. American         Journal of Physiology—Cell Physiology, Vol. 278, Issue 4,         C822-C833, April 2000     -   Hale P L. Zinc alpha-2-glycoprotein Regulates Melanin Production         by Normal and Malignant Melanocytes. Journal of Investigative         Dermatology (2002) 119, 464-470     -   Ochiai Y, Kaburagi S, Okano Masaki H, Ichihashi M, Funasaka V.         Sakurai H. A Zn(11)-glycine complex suppresses UVB-induced         melanin production by stimulating metallothionein expression.         International Journal of Cosmetic Science, Vol. 30, Issue 2, pp.         105-112     -   Lee J, Jung E, Lee J, Huh S, Boo Y C, Hyun C G, Kim Y S, Park D.         Mechanisms of melanogenesis inhibition by         2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone. British Journal of         Dermatology, 2007 August; 157(2): 242-8     -   Vince/xi F F. Effects of Botulinum Toxin on Autonomic Nerves in         a Dully Innervated Tissue. Nature 213, 394-395     -   Kumar M N V R. Nano and Microparticles as Controlled Drug         Delivery Devices. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences         3(2): 234-258, 2000     -   Gelperina S. Kisich K, Iseman M D, Heifets L. The Potential         Advantages o Nanoparticle Drug Delivery Systems in Chemotherapy         of Tuberculosis. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical         Care Medicine Vol 172. pp. 1487-1490, (2005)     -   Moreau J W, Weber P K, Martin M C, Gilbert B, Hutcheon I D,         Banfield J F. Extracellular Proteins Limit the Dispersal of         Biogenic Nanoparticles. Science 15 June 2007: Vol. 316, No.         5831, pp. 1600-1603     -   Bell M S, Vermeulen L C, Sperling K B. Pharmacotherapy With         Botulinum Toxin: Harnessing Nature's Most Potent Neurotoxin.         Pharmacotherapy, 2000 Sep;20(9):1079-91     -   Carruthers A, Carruthers J. Botulinum Toxin Products Overview.         Skin Therapy Letter, Volume 13, Number 6, July-August 2008     -   Haider R M, Richards G M. Topical Agents Used in the Management         of Hyperpigmentation. Skin Therapy Letter, Volume 9, Number 6,         June-July 2004     -   Shahi S K, Patra M. Microbially Synthesized Bioactive         Nanoparticles and their Formulation Active Against Human         Pathogenic Fungi. Reviews on Advanced Materials Science 5(2003)         501-509     -   First ER, US Patent Number 20050220734 Therapy for Melanin         Related Afflications First ER, US Patent Numbers 20080199498         20090087459 Methods for Treating Eye Disorders     -   Lloyd T, Kochel R L, Weinstein J M. The effect of sympathectomy         upon iris tyrosinase activity. Vision Research, 1985;         25(2):213-7     -   Rowland L P. Stroke, Spasticity, and Botulinum Toxin. New         England Journal of Medicine2002; 347:382-383     -   Damm J, Rau ‘f, Maihofner C, Pahl A, Brune K. Constitutive         expression and localization of COX-I and COX-2 in rabbit iris         and ciliary body. Experimental Eye Research 2001, Vol. 72, No.         6, pp. 611-621     -   Robert T. Lyons, Hongwen Ma. John T. Trogden, US Patent         2004/0170665 Methods, Compositions and Drug Delivery System for         Intcrocular Delivery of siRNA Molecules. First ER, US Patent         2008/0014159 Methods for treating melanin related afflictions by         local administration of a Clostridial toxin, such as a botulinum         toxin, to a patient with a melanin related affliction.     -   Chawla S, deLong M A, Visscher M O, Wickett R R, Manga P, Boissy         R E, Mechanism of tyrosinase inhibition by deoxyArbutin and its         second-generation derivatives, British Journal of Dermatology,         2008 December; 159(6):1267-74.     -   Yeon Mi Kim, Jieun Yun, Chong-Kil Lee, Hwanghee Lee, Kyung Rak         Min, Youngsoo Kim, Oxyresveratrol and Hydroxystilbene Compounds,         JBC 2002, Feb. 25, 2002, doi: 10.1074/jbc.M200678200     -   Jin Hee Kim, Seung Hwa Baek, Dong Hyun Kim, Tae Young Choi, Tae         Jin Yoon, Jae Sung Hwang, Mee Ree Kim, Ho Jeong Kwon, Choong         Hwan Lee, Downregulation of Melanin Synthesis by Haginin A and         Its Application to In Vivo Lightening Model, Journal of         Investigative Dermatology (2008) 128, 1227-1235     -   Ancans Janis, Tobin Desmond J., Hoogduijn Martin J., Smit Nico         P., Wakamatsu Kazumasa, Thody Anthony J., Melanosomal pH         Controls Rate of Melanogenesis, Eumelanin/Phaeomelanin Ratio and         Melanosome Maturation in Melanocytes and Melanoma Cells,         doi:10.1006/excr.2001.5251     -   Ancans Janis, Tobin Desmond J., Hoogduijn Martin J., Smit Nico         P., Wakamatsu Kazumasa, Thody Anthony J., Melanosomal pH         Controls Rate of Melanogenesis, Eumelanin/Phaeomelanin Ratio and         Melanosome Maturation in Melanocytes and Melanoma Cells     -   Kuliawat R, Santambrogio L., A mutation within the transmembrane         domain of melanosomal protein Silver (Pme117) changes lumenal         fragment interactions. Eur J Cell Biol. 2009 November;         88(11):653-67.     -   Wei Lu, Chiyi Xiong, Guodong Zhang, Qian Huang, Rui Zhang,         Jin Z. Zhang, Chun Li, Targeted Photothermal Ablation of Murine         Melanomas with Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Analog—Conjugated         Hollow Gold Nanospheres, Clinical Cancer Research February 2009         15; 876     -   Fujila H, Motokawa T, katagiri T, Yokota S, Yamamoto A,         Himeno M. Tanaka Y., Inulavocin. nielanogenesis inhibitor, leads         to mistargeting of tyrosinase to lysosomes and accelerates its         degradation. J Invest Dermatol. 2009 June; 129(6):1489-99. Epub         2008 Dec. 25     -   I lac Jung Paik 1. hui Dong Kang2 3, Jin Seok Choil, Byung Gil         Choil and Hye Bin Yim4, Effect of botulinum a toxin injection on         the extraocular muscle fiber layers: Comparison between subtenon         injection and intramuscular injection, Japanese Journal of         Ophthalmology, Volume 53, Number 3/May, 2009     -   Thomas R, Mathai A, Braganza A, Billson F. Periodic alternating         nystagmus treated with retrobulbar botulinum toxin and large         horizontal muscle recession. Indian J Ophthalmol. Jennifer G.         Christie and Uday B. Kompella, Ophthalmic Light Sensitive         Nanocarrier Systems, Drug Discov Today. 2008 February; 13(3-4):         124-134.     -   Martin HrubY, Cestmir Konak and Karel Ulbrich, Polymeric         micellar pH-sensitive drug delivery system for doxorubicin,         Journal of Controlled Release, Volume 103, Issue 1, 2         March 2005. Pages 137-148.     -   K. S. Soppiniath, D. C.-W. Tan, Y.-Y. Yang, pH-Triggered         Thermally Responsive Polymer Core-Shell Nanoparticles for Drug         Delivery, Volume 17 Issue 3, Pages 318-323.     -   Maha Saad, Olga B. Garbuzenko, Elizabeth Ber, Pooja Chandna,         Jayant J. Khandare, Vitaly P. Pozharov, Tamara Minko, Receptor         targeted polymers, dendrimers, liposomes: Which nanocarrier is         the most efficient for tumor-specific treatment and imaging?         Journal of Controlled Release, Vol. 130, No. 2. (10 Sep. 2008),         pp. 107-114 Patri A K, Kukowska-Latallo J F, Baker J R Jr.,         Targeted drug delivery with dendrimers: comparison of the         release kinetics of covalently conjugated drug and non-covalent         drug inclusion complex., Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2005 Dec. 14;         57(15):2203-14.     -   Kerstin Bergh, Parri Wentzel, Johan Stjernschantz. Journal of         Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. October 2002, 18(5):         391-400.     -   Kerstin Bergh, Parri Wentzel, Johan Stjernschantz. Journal of         Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. October 2002, 18(5):         391-400     -   Saad et al., Receptor Targeted Polymers, Denderimers, Lipsomes:         Which Nanocarrier Is the Most Efficient for Tumor-Specific         Treatment and Imaging? J. of Controlled Release, Vol. 130,         No. 2. (10 September 2008), pp. 107-114     -   Patri A K, Kukowska-Latallo J F, Baker J R Jr., Targeted drug         delivery with dendrimers: comparison of the release kinetics of         covalently conjugated drug and non-covalent drug inclusion         complex., Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2005 Dec. 14; 57(15):2203-14. Epub         2005 Nov. 14.     -   0 Kotrotsiou, K Kotti, E Dini, 0 Kammona and C Kiparissides,         Nanostructured materials for selective recognition and targeted         drug delivery, Journal of Physics: Conference Series 10         (2005)281-284     -   Jan Borovansky, Zinc in pigmented cells and structures.         interactions and possible roles. Sborn. lek. Vol. 95 (1994)         No. 4. p. 300-320     -   Angel L. Rosas, ‘Joshua D. Nosanchuk, and Arturo Casadevall,         Passive Immunization with Melanin-Bindining monoclonal         Antibodies Prolongs Survival of Mice with Lethal Cryptococcus         neoformans Infection, Infect Immun. 2001 May; 69(5): 3410-3412.     -   Revskaya L, Jongco A M, Sellers R S, howell R C, Koba W,         (iuimaraes A J, Nosanchuk J D, Casadevall A, ftidachova L.         Radioimmunotherapy 1) 1\ pdll neat al human metastatic melanoma         with melanin-binding antibodies and in combination with         dacarbazine. Clin Cancer Res. 2009 Apr. 1; 15(7):2373-9. Epub         2009 Mar. 17.     -   LEN W. SEYMOUR, PAULINE A. FLANAGAN, AYMEN AL-SHAMKIIANI,         VLADIMIR SUBR, KAREL ULBRILI I. JAM IS (ASSII)Y, RUTH DUNCAN.         Selective Cancer Therapeutics. Summer 1991, 7(2): 59-73.     -   Pavel Bro2a, Samantha M. 13enitob, CheeLoong Sawa, c, Peter         Burgera, c, Harald Heiderd, Matthias Pfisterere, Stephan         Marscha, Wolfgang Meierb, c, and Patrick Hunziker, Cell         targeting by a generic receptor-targeted polymer nanocontainer         platform, Journal of Controlled Release, Volume 102, Issue 2, 2         Feb. 2005, Pages 475-488     -   Vladimir Torchilin, Antibody-modified liposomes for cancer         chemotherapy, Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery, September 2008,         Vol. 5, No. 9 : Pages 1003-1025     -   Singh Shakti K, Lohiya G K, Limburkar P P, Dharbale N B, Mourya         V K, Dendrimer a versatile polymer in drug delivery, 2009,         Volume 3, Issue Number 3, Page 178-187     -   Konstas A G, Marshall G E, Lee W R., Immunocytochemical         localisation of collagens (I-.V) in the human iris, Graefes Arch         Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1990; 228(2):180-6.     -   Herbert E. Kaufman M D, Michael S. Insler M D, Hosan A.         Ibrahim-Elzembely M D and Stephen C. Kaufman M D, Human fibrin         tissue adhesive for sutureless lamellar keratoplasty and scleral         patch adhesion: a pilot study, Ophthalmology, Volume 110, Issue         11, November 2003, Pages 2168-2172.     -   Richard Horobin, John Kiernan, Conn's Biological Stains: A         Handbook of Dyes, Stains and Fluorochromes for Use in Biology         and Medicine, Taylor and Francis; 1st edition (Jun. 30, 2002)     -   Aldo Jesorka and Owe Orwar, Liposomes: Technologies and         Analytical Applications, Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry         Vol. 1: 801-832 (Volume publication date July 2008)     -   William A. Hare, Elizabeth WoldeMussie. Ronald K. Lai, Hau Ton,         Guadalupe Ruiz, Teresa Chun and Larry Wheeler. Efficacy and         Safety of Memantine Treatment for Reduction of Changes         Associated with Experimental Glaucoma in Monkey, I: Functional         Measures, Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 2004;         45:2625-2639.     -   62. Jim Hee Kim, Seung Hwa Back. Dong Hyun Kim, Tac Young Choi,         Tae Jin Yoon, Jae Sung Hwang. Mee Ree Kim, Ito Jeong Kwon and         Choong Hwan Lee. Downregulation of Melanin Synthesis by I         laginin A and Its Application to In Vivo Lightening Model,         Journal of Investigative Dermatology (2008) 128, 1227-1235     -   Ronnov-Jessen I. et al. A fibroblast-associated antigen:         characterization in fibroblasts and immunoreactivity in smooth         muscle differentiated stromal cells. J Histochem Cytochem         40:475-86 (1992).     -   Singer K H et al. Removal of fibroblasts from human epithelial         cell cultures with use of a complement fixing monoclonal         antibody reactive with human fibroblasts and         monocytes/macrophages. J Invest Dermatol 92:166-70 (1989).     -   Toshihiko Hoashi, Kunihiko Tamaki, and Vincent J. Hearing, The         secreted form of a melanocyte membrane-bound glycoprotein (Pmel         17/h 100) is released by ectodomain shedding, Published online         before print Nov. 2, 2009 as doi: 10.1096/6.09-140921     -   Yeon Mi Kim, Jieun Yun, Chong-Kil Lee, Hwanghee Lee, Kyung Rak         Min and Youngsoo Kim, Oxyresveratrol and Hydroxystilbene         Compounds Inhibitory Effect on Tyrosinase and Mechanism of         Action, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, May 3, 2002, 277,         16340-16344     -   Raper, H. S. The anaerobic oxidases. Physiol. Rev. 1928, 8,         245-282.     -   Mason, H. S. The chemistry of melanin. III. Mechanism of the         oxidation of trihydroxyphenylalanine by tyrosinase. J. Biol.         Chem. 1948, 172, 83-99.     -   Cooksey, C. J.; Garratt, P. J.; Land, E. J.; Pavel, S.;         Ramsden, C. A.; Riley, P. A.; Smit N. P. M. Evidence of the         indirect formation of the catecholic intermediate substrate         responsible for the autoactivation kinetics of tyrosinase. J.         Biol. Chem. 1997, 272, 26226-26235.     -   Schallreuter, K. U.; Kothari, S.; Chavan, B.; Spencer, J. D.         Regulation of melanogenesis-controversies and new concepts. Exp.         Dermatol. 2008, 17, 395-404.     -   71 Halaban, R.; Patton, R. S.; Cheng E.; Svedine, S.;         Trombetta, E. S.; Wahl, M. L.; Ariyan, S.; Hebert, D. N.         Abnormal acidification of melanoma cells induces tyrosinase         retention in the early secretory pathway. J. Biol. Chein. 2002,         277, 14821-14828.     -   Aries, F.; Castafier, M.; Gil, M.I. Review: enzymatic browning         in minimally processed fruit and vegetables. J. Agric. Food         Chem. 1998, 4, 377-389.     -   Rescigno. A.; Sollai, F.; Pisu, B.; A ; Sanjust, E. Tyrosinase         inhibition: general and applied aspects. J. Enzyme Inhih. Med.         Chem.2002./7, 207-218.     -   Kim, Y. J.: Uyania. Tvrosinasc inhibitors from natural and         synthetic sources: structure, inhibition mechanism and         perspective for the future. Cell. Mol.life sci (2005, 62,         1707-1723.     -   Parvez, S. Kang, M.; Chung, H. S.; Bae, H. Naturally occurring         tyrosinase inhibitors: mechanism and applications in skin         health, cosmetics and agriculture industries. Phytother. Res.         2007, 21, 805-816.     -   Briganti, S.; Camera, E.; Picardo, M. Chemical and instrumental         approaches to treat hyperpigmentation. Pigment Cell Res. 2003,         16, 101-110.     -   Rendon, M I, Gaviria, J. I. Review of skin-lightening agents.         Dermutol. Sing. 2005, 31, 886-889. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2009, 10         2466     -   Draelos, Z. D. Skin lightening preparations and the hydroquinone         controversy. Dermatol. Ther. 2007, 20, 308-313.     -   Parvez, S.; Kang, M.; Chung, H. S.; Cho, C.; Hong, M. C.;         Shin, M. K.; Roc, U. Survey and mechanism of skin depigmenting         and lightening agents. Phytother. Res. 2006, 20, 921-934.     -   Solano, F.; Briganti, S.; Picard ̊, M.; Ghanem, G.         Hypopigmenting agents: an updated review on biological, chemical         and clinical aspects. Pigment Cell Res. 2006, 19, 550-571.     -   Ando, H.; Kondoh, H.; Ichihashi, M.; Hearing, V. J. Approaches         to identify inhibitors of melanin biosynthesis via the quality         control of tyrosinase. Invest. Dermatol. 2007, 127, 751-761.     -   Zhu, W.; Gao, J. The use of botanical extracts as topical         skin-lightening agents for the improvement of skin pigmentation         disorders. J. Investig. Dermutol. Symp. Proc. 2008, /3, 20-24.     -   Sanchez-Ferrer, A.; Rodriguez-Lopez, J. N., Garcia-Canovas, F.;         Garcia-Carmona, F. Tyrosinase: a comprehensive review of its         mechanism. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1995, 1247,1-11.     -   Seo, S. Y.; Sharma, V. K.; Sharma, N. Mushroom tyrosinase:         recent prospects. J. Agile. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 2837-2853.     -   Sugumaran, M. Comparative biochemistry of eumelanogenesis and         the protective roles of phenoloxidase and melanin in insects.         Pigment Cell. Res. 2002, 15, 2-9.     -   Matoba, Y.; Kumagai, T.; Yamamoto, A.; Yoshitsu, H.;         Sugiyama, M. Crystallographic evidence that the dinuclear copper         center of tyrosinase is flexible during catalysis. J. Biol.         Chem. 2006, 281, 8981-8990.     -   Wang, N.; Hebert, D. N. Tyrosinase maturation through the         mammalian secretory pathway: bringing color to life. Pigment         Cell Res. 2006, 19, 3-18.     -   Garcia-Molina. F.; Munoz. J. L; Varon. Rodriguez-Lopez, J. N.;         Garcia-Canovas. F.; Tudela. J. A review on spectrophotometric         measuring the monophenolase and dipheliolase activities of         tyrosinase. J.Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 9739-9749.     -   Garciai-Borron, J. C.; Solano. F. Molecular anatomy of         tyrosinase and its related proteins: Beyond the histidine bound         metal catalytic center. Pigm.Cell Res. 2002, 15, 162-173.     -   Wilcox, D. E.; Porras, A. G; Hwang, Y.1.; Lerch, K.; Winkler, M.         E.; Solomon, E. I. Substrate analogue binding to the coupled         binuclear copper active site in tyrosinase. J. Am. Chem. 1985,         107, 4015-4027.     -   Chen, J. S.; Wei, C.; Marshall, M. R. Inhibition mechanism of         kojic acid on polyphenol oxidase. J. 1.grie. Food Chem. 1991,         39, 1897-1901.     -   Cabanes, J.; Chazarra, S.; Garcia-Carmona, F. Kojic acid, a         cosmetic skin whitening agent, is a slow-binding inhibitor of         catecholase activity of tyrosinase. J. Phurm. Pharmucol. 1994,         46, 982-985.     -   Espin, J. C.; Wichers,H. J. Slow-binding inhibition of mushroom         (Agurieus bispor tyrosinase isoforms by tropolone. J. Agric.         Food Chem. 1999, 47, 2638-2644.     -   Cabanes, J.; Garcia-Canovas, F.; Tudela, J.; Lozano, J. A.;         Garcia-Cannona, F. L-mimosine a slow-binding nhibitor of         mushroom tyrosinase. Phylochemistry 1987, 26, 917-919.     -   Harhorne, J. B.; Williams, C. A. Advances in flavonoid research         since 1992. Phytochemistry 2000, 55, 481-504.     -   Kubo, I.; Kinst-Hori, I. Flavonols from saffron flower:         tyrosinase inhibitory activity and inhibition mechanism. J.         Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47, 4121-4125.     -   Kubo, I.; Kinst-Hori, I.; Chaudhuri, S. K.; Kubo, Y.; Sanchez,         Y.; Ogura, T. Flavonols from Heterotheca inuloides: tyrosinase         inhibitory activity and structural criteria. Bioorg. Med. Chem.         2000, 8, 1749-1755.     -   Xie, L. P.; Chen, Q. X.; Huang, H.; Wang, H. Z.; Zhang, R. Q.         Inhibitory effects of some flavonoids on the activity of         mushroom tyrosinase. Biochemistry 2003, 68, 487-491.     -   Matsuda, H.; Higashino, M.; Chen, W.; Tosa, H.; linuma, M.;         Kubo, M. Studies of cuticle drugs from natural sources. III.         Inhibitory effect of Myrica rubra on melanin biosynthesis. Biol.         Phurm. Bull. 1995, 18, 1148-1150.     -   Nugroho, A.; Choi, J. K.; Park, J. H.; Lee, K. T.; Cha, B. C.;         Park, H. J. Two new flavonol glycosides from Lamium         amplexicaule L. and their in vitro free radical scavenging and         tyrosinase inhibitory activities. Planta Med. 2009, 75, 364-366.     -   Gao, H.; Nishida, J.; Saito, S.; Kawabata, J. Inhibitory effects         of 5,6,7-trihydroxyflavones on tyrosinase. Molecules 2007, 12,         86-97.     -   Zhang. C.; Lu. Y. Tan X. Thyrosinase Inhibitory effects and         inhibition mechanisms of nobiletin and hesperidin from Citrus         peel crude extract. Pharm. Bull. 2009, 32, 410-415.     -   Itoh, K.; Hirata,N et al; Inhibitory effect of Citrus hassaku         extract. Biol.Pharm.Bull. 2009, 32, 410-415     -   Lee. S. H.; Choi, S. Y.; Kim, H.; Hwang, J. S.; Lee. B. Ci.;         Gao, J. J.; Kim, S. Y. Mulberroside F isolated from the leaves         of morus alba inhibits melanin biosynthesis. Biol. Phartn. Bull.         2002, 25, 1045-1048.     -   Ryu, Y. B.; Ha, T. J.; Curtis-Long, M. J.; Ryu, H. W.; Gal, S.         W.; Park, K. H. Inhibitory effects on mushroom tyrosinase by         flavones from the stein barks of Monts Thou (S.) Koidz. J.         Enzyme Inhih. Med. Chem. 2008, 23, 922-930.     -   Shin, N. H.; Ryu, S. Y.; Choi, E. J.; Kang, S. H.; Chang, I. M.;         Min, K. R.; Kim, Y. Oxyresveratrol as the potent inhibitor on         dopa oxidase activity of mushroom tyrosinase. Biochem. Biophys.         Res. Comm//n. 1998, 243, 801-803.     -   Jeong, S. H.; Ryu, Y. B.; Curtis-Long, M. J.; Ryu, H. W.;         Baek, Y. S.; Kung, J. E.; Lee, W. S.; Park, K. H. Tyrosinase         Inhibitory Polyphenols from Roots of Monts Ihou. J. Agile. Food         Chem. 2009, 57, 1195-1203.     -   Arung, E. T.; Shimizu, K.; Kondo, R. Inhibitory effect of         artocarpanone from Art/cu/pus heterophyllus on melanin         biosynthesis. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2006, 29, 1966-1969.     -   Zheng, Z. P.; Cheng, K. W.; To, .1.T.; Li, H.; Wang, M.         Isolation of tyrosinase inhibitors from Artocarpus heterophyllus         and use of its extract as antibrowning agent. Mol. Nutr. Food         Res. 2008, 52, 1530-1538.     -   Karioti, A.; Protopappa, A.; Megoulas, N.; Skaltsa, H.         Identification of tyrosinase inhibitors from Marrubium velutinum         and Marrubium cylleneum. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2007, /5, 2708-2714.     -   Kim, D.; Park, J.; Kim, J.; Han, C.; Yoon, J.; Kim, N.; Seo, J.;         Lee, C. Flavonoids as mushroom tyrosinase inhibitors: A         fluorescence quenching study. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54,         935-941.     -   Miyazawa, M.; Tamura, N. Inhibitory compound of tyrosinase         activity from the sprout of Polygonum hydropiper L. (Benitade).         Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2007, 30, 595-597. Int. J. Mol. Si 2009, 10         2468     -   An, S. M.; Kim, H. J.; Kim, L E.; Boo, /.C. Flavonoids,         taxifolin and luteolin attenuate cellular melanogenesis despite         increasing tyrosinase protein levels. Phytother. Res. 2008, 22,         1200-1207.     -   Masuda, T.; Yamashita. Screening for tyrosinase inhibitors among         extracts of seashore plants and identification of potent         inhibitors. Biosci. Biochem. 2005 69, 197-201.     -   Yokota, T.; Nishio, 11.: Kubota. The inhibitory effect of         glabridin from licorice extracts Pigmnt Cell Research, 1998, II,         355-361.     -   Nerya, 0.; Vaya, J.; Musa, K.; Ben-Ark, R.; Tarnir, S. Glahrene         and isoliquiritigenin as tyrosinase inhibitors from Licorice         roots. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 1201-1207.     -   Kim, H. J.; Seo, S. H.; Lee, B. G.; Ice, Y. S. Identification of         tyrosinase inhibitors from Glycyrrhiza uralensis. Planta Med.         2005, 71, 785-787.     -   Chang, T. S.; Ding, H. Y.; Lin, H. C. Identifying         6,7,4′-trihydroxyisollavone as a potent tyrosinase inhibitor.         Biosci. Biotechnol., Biochem. 2005, 69, 1999-2001.     -   Chang, T. S.; Ding, H. Y.; Tai, S. S. K.; Wu, C. V. Tyrosinase         inhibitors isolated from soygerm koji fermented with Aspergillus         oryzae BCRC 32288. Food Chem. 2007, 105, 1430-1438.     -   Chang, T. S. Two potent suicide substrates of mushroom         tyrosinase: 7,8,4′-trihydroxyisoflavone and         5,7,8,4′-tetrahydroxyisollavone. J. Agile. Food Chem. 2007, 55,         2010-2015.     -   Kim, J. H.; Back, S. H.; Kim, D. H.; Choi, T N.; Yoon, T. J.;         Hwang, J. S.; Kim, M. R.; Kwon, H. J.; Lee, C. H. Downregulation         of melanin synthesis by haginin A and its application to in vivo         lightening model. J. Invest. Dermatol. 2008, 128, 1227-1235.     -   Back, S.; Kim, J.; Kim, D.; Lee, C.; Kim, J.; Chung, D. K.;         Lee, C. Inhibitory effect of dalbergioidin isolated from the         trunk of Lespedeza cvrtohotrya on melanin biosynthesis. J.         Microhiol. Biotechnol. 2008, 18, 874-879.     -   Kim, J. H.; Kim, M. R.; Lee, E. S.; Lee, C. H. Inhibitory         effects of calycosin isolated from the root of Astragalus         membrunaceus on melanin biosynthesis. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2009,         32, 264-268.     -   Fu, B.; Li, H.; Wang, X.; Lee, F. S.; Cui, S. isolation and         identification of flavonoids in licorice and a study of their         inhibitory effects on tyrosinase. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53,         7408-7414.     -   Kim, S. J.; Son, K. H.; Chang, H. W.; Kang, S. S.; Kim, H. P.         Tyrosinase inhibitory prenylated flavonoids from         Sophordflctvescens. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2003, 26, 1348-1350.     -   Hyun, S. K.; Lee, W. H.; Jeong, da. M.; Kim, Y.; Choi, J. S.         Inhibitory effect of kurarinol, kuraridinol, and trifolirhizin         from Sophora flavescens on tyrosinase and melanin synthesis.         Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2008, 31, 154-158.     -   Zhang. X et al. Inhibitory effect of 2,4,2,4         tetrahydroxy-3-(3-methyl-2-butenyl) chalcone on tyrosinase         activity and melanin biosynthesis. Biol.pharm.Bull. 2009, 32,         86-90.     -   Shimizu, K.; Konklo. R.; Sikai. K. Inhibition of tyrosinase by         flavonoids, stilbenes and related 4-substituted resorcinols:         structure-activity investigations. Planta Med. 2000, 66, 11-15.     -   Chen, Q. X.; Ke, L. N.; Song, K. K.; Ituang, H.; Liu, X. D.         Inhibitory effects of hexylresorcinol and dodecyiresorcinol on         mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) tyrosinase. Protein J. 2004, 23,         135-141.     -   Nerya, 0.; Musa, R.; Khatib, S.; Tamir, S.; Vaya, J. Chalcones         as potent tyrosinase inhibitors: the effect of hydroxyl         positions and numbers. Phytochcinistty 2004, 65, 1389-1395.     -   Khatih, S.; Nerya, 0.; Musa, R.; Shmuel, M.; Tamir, S.; Vaya, J.         Chalcones as potent tyrosinase inhibitors: the importance of a         2,4-substituted resorcinol moiety. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2005, 13,         433-441.     -   Jun, N.; Hong, G.; Jun, K. Synthesis and evalution of         21,4′,61-trihydroxychalcones as a new class of tyrosine         inhibitors. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2007, 15, 2396-2402.     -   Cho, Si., Rob, J. S.: Sun, W. S.; Kim, S. H.; Park, K. D.         N-Benzylbenzamides: a new class of potent tyrosinase inhibitors.         Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2006, 16, 2682-2684.     -   Khatib, S.; Nerya, 0.; Musa, R.; Tamir, S.; Peter, T.; Vaya, J.         Enhanced substituted resorcinol hydrophobicity augments         tyrosinase inhibition potency. J. Med. Chem. 2007, 50,         2676-2681,     -   Kim, Y. M.; Yun, J.; Lee, C. K.; Lee, H.; Min, K. R.; Kim, Y.         Oxyresveratrol and hydroxystilbene compounds. Inhibitory effect         on tyrosinase and mechanism of action. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277,         16340-16344.     -   Kuniyoshi, S.; Seiji, Y.; Ryuichiro, K. A new stilbene with         tyrosinase inhibitory activity form Chlorophoru excelsa. Chem.         Phurin. Bull. 2003, 51, 318-319.     -   Ohguchi, K.; Tanaka, T.; Iliya, 1.; Ito, T.; linuma, M.;         Matsumoto, K.; Akao, Y.; Nozawa, Y. Gnetol as a potent         tyrosinase inhibitor from genus Gnetum. Biosci. Biotechnol.,         Bioehem. 2003, 67, 663-665.     -   Yokozawa, T.; Kim, Y. J. Piceatannol inhibits melanogenesis by         its antioxidative actions. Biol. Phurm. Bull. 2007, 30,         2007-2011.     -   Ohguchi, K.; Tanaka, T.; Kido, T.; Baba, K.; linuma, M.;         Matsumoto, K.; Akao, Y.; Nozawa, Y. Effects of hydroxystilbene         derivatives on tyrosinase activity. Biochem. Biophys. Res.         Commun. 2003, 307, 861-863.     -   Song. K. K. et al; Inhibitory effect of of cis- and         trans-isomers of 3.5-dihydroxystibene on the activity of mushrum         tyrosinase, Biochem.Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 342, 1147-1151,     -   Likhitwitayavuid, K.; Sornsute, A.; Sritularak. Ii.;         Ploypradith, P. Chemical transformations of oxyresveratrol         (trans-2,4,3′,5′-tetrahydroxystilbene) into a potent tyrosinase         inhibitor and a strong cytotoxic agent. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett.         2006, 16, 5650-5653.     -   142. Oozeki, H.; Tajima, R.; Nihei, K. Molecular design of         potent tyrosinase inhibitors having the bibenzyl skeleton.         Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2008, 18, 5252-5254.     -   Vielhaber, G.; Schmaus, G.: Jacobs, K.; Franke, I I.; Lange, S.;         Herrmann, M.; Joppe, H.; Koch, 0.         4-(1-Phenylethyl)1,3-benzenediol; a new, highly efficient         lightening agent. Int. J. Cosine!. Sci. 2007, 29, 65-66.     -   Song, S.; Lee, H.; Jin, Y.; Ha, Y. M.; 13ae. S.; Chung, H.Y.;         Suh, H. Syntheses of hydroxy substituted 2-phenyl-naphthalenes         as inhibitors of tyrosinase. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2007, 17,         461-464.     -   Ha, Y. M.; Chun S. W.; Song, S.; Lee, H.; Suh, H.; Chung, H. Y.         4-(6-Hydroxy-2-naphthyl)-1,3-bezendiol: a potent, new tyrosinase         inhibitor. Thai. Phurtn. Bull. 2007, 30, 1711-1715.     -   Jones, K.; Hughes, J.; Hong, M.; Jia, Q.; Orndorff, S.         Modulation of melanogenesis by aloesin: a competitive inhibitor         of tyrosinase. Pigment Cell Res. 2002, 15, 335-340.     -   Choi, S.; Lee, S. K.; Kim, J. E.; Chung, M. N.; Park, Y.1.         Aloesin inhibits hyperpigmentation induced by UV radiation.         Clin.Exp. Dermutol. 2002, 27, 513-515.     -   Masamoto, Y.; Ando, H.; Murata, Y.; Shimoishi, Y.; Tada, M.;         Takahata, K. Mushroom tyrosinase inhibitory activity of         esculetin isolated from seeds of Efrphorbia luthyris L. Biosci.         Biotechnol., Biochem. 2003, 67, 631-634.     -   Sollai, F.; Zucca, P.; Sanjust, E.; Steri, D.; Resciqno, A.         Umbelliferone and esculetin: inhibitors or substrates for         polyphenol oxidases? Biol. Phurm. Bull. 2008, 31, 2187-2193.     -   Piao, X. L.; Baek, S. H.; Park, M. K.; Park, J. H.         Tyrosinase-inhibitory furanocoumarin from Angelica duhuricu.         Biol. Phurni. Bull. 2004, 27, 1144-1146.     -   Ahmad, V. U.; Ullah, F.; Hussain, .1.; Farooq, U.; Zubair, M.;         Khan, M. T.; Choudhary, M. I. Tyrosinase inhibitors from         Rhododendron collettianum and their structure-activity         relationship (SAR) studies. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2004, 52,         1458-1461.     -   Lee, H. S. Tyrosinase inhibitors of Pulsatilla cernua         root-derived materials. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50,         1400-1403.     -   Jimenez, M.; Chazarra, S.; Escribano, J.; Cabanes, J.;         Garcia-Carmona, F. Competitive inhibition of mushroom tyrosinase         by 4-substituted benzaldehydes. J. Agric. Food. Chem, 2001, 49,         4060-4063.     -   Kubo. 1.; Kinst-Hori et al; a potent tyrosinase inhibitor from         African medicinal plants. Planta Med. 1999, 65, 19-22.     -   Lim, J. Y.; Ishiguro, K.; Kubo, 1. Tyrosinase inhibitory         p-coumaric acid from ginseng leaves. Phytoter. Res. 1999, 13,         371-3     -   Iwai, K.; Kishimoto, N.; Kakino. Y.; Mochida, K.; Fujita, T. hi         vitro antioxidative effects and tyrosinase inhibitory activities         of seven hydroxycinnamoyl derivatives in green coffee beans. j.         Agric.food Chem. 2004, 52, 4891-4898.     -   Miyazawaa. M.; Oshima, T.; Koshino. K.; Itsuzaki, Y.; Anzai, J.         Tyrosinase inhibitor from black rice bran. J. Agric. Food. Chem.         2003, 51, 6953-6956.     -   Kubo, I.; Kinst-Hori, I. Tyrosinase inhibitors from cumin.         Agric. Food Chem. 1998, 46, 5338-5341.     -   Kubo, I.; Kinst-Hori, I. Tyrosinase inhibitory activity of the         olive oil flavor compounds. .1. Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47,         4574-4578.     -   Conrad, Dawso, S. R.; Hubbard, E. R.; Meyers, T. E.;         Strothkamp, K. G. Inhibitor binding to the binuclear active site         of tyrosinase: temperature, pH and solvent deuterium isotope         effects. Biochemistry 1994, 33, 5739-5744.     -   Huang, X. H., Chen, Q. X., You, M. S.; Wang, Q.; Song, K. K.,         Wang, J.; Sha, L.; Guan, X. Inhibitory effects of         fluorobenzaldehydes on the activity of mushroom tyrosinase. J.         Enzyme Minh. Med. Chem. 2006, 21, 413-418.     -   Huang, Q. S.; Z-Y.J.; Li, HI.; Zhuang, J. X.; Zhang, C. L.;         Zhou, .I. J.; Li, W. G.; Chen, Q. X. Inhibitory effects of         methyl trans-cinnamate on mushroom tyrosinase and its         antimicrobial activities. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57,         2565-2569.     -   Zhang, J. P.; Chen, Q. X.; Song, K. K.; Xie, J. J. Inhibitory         effects of salicylic acid family compounds on the diphenolase         activity of mushroom tyrosinase. Food Chem. 2006, 95, 579-584.     -   Kanade, S. R.; Suhas, V. L., Chandra, N.; Gowda, L. R.         Functional interaction of diphenols with polyphenol oxidase.         Molecular determinants of substrate/inhibitor specificity.         FEBS J. 2007, 274, 4177-4187.     -   Masuda, T.; Fujita, N.; Odaka, Y.; Takeda, Y.; Yonemori, S.;         Nakamoto, K.; Kuninaga, H. Tyrosinase inhibitory activity of         ethanol extracts from medicinal and edible plants cultivated in         okinawa and identification of a water-soluble inhibitor from the         leaves of Nundina domestica. Biosci. Biotechnol., Biochem. 2007,         7/, 2316-2320.     -   Kang, H. S.; Choi, J. H.; Cho, W. K.; Park, J. C.; Choi, J. S. A         sphingolipid and tyrosinase inhibitors from the fruiting body of         Phellinus linteus. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2004, 27, 742-750.     -   No, J. K.; Kim, M. S.; Kim, Y. J.; Bae, S. J.; Choi, J. S.;         Chung, H. Y. Inhibition of tyrosinase by protocatechuic         aldehyde. Am. J. Chin. Med. 2004, 32, 97-103.     -   Song, K. K.: Chen, Q. X.; Wang, Q.; Qiu, L.; Inhibitory effects         of 4-vinylbenzaldehyde and 4-vinylbenzoic acid on the activity         of mushroom tyrosinase. J.Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem. 2005, 20,         239-243.     -   Xue. C. B.: Luo, W. C.; Ding. Q.; Liu, S. Z.; Ciao: X. X.         Quantitative structure-activity relationship studies of mushroom         tyrosinase inhibitors J. Comput. Aided. Mol. Des. 2008, 22,         299-309.     -   Chen, Q. X.; Song, K. K.; Wang, Q.; Huang, H. Inhibitory effects         on mushroom tyrosinase by some alkylbenzaldehydes. J. Enzyme.         Inhib. Med. Chem. 2003, 18.491-496.     -   Nihei, K.; Vamagiwa, Y.; Kamikawa, T.; Kubo, 1.         2-Hydroxy-4-isopropylbenzaldehyde, a potent partial tyrosinase         inhibitor. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2004, 14, 681-683. 172:     -   Lev, .I. P.; Bertram, 11.1. Hydroxy- or methoxy-substituted         benzaldoximes and benzaldehyde¬O-alkyloximes as tyrosinase         inhibitors. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2001, 9, 1879-1885.     -   Xue, C. B.; Zhang, L.; Luo, W. C., Xie, X. Y., Jiang, L.;         Xiao, T. 3D-QSAR and molecular docking studites of benzaldehyde         thiosemicarbazone, benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, and their         derivatives as phenoloxidase inhibitors. Bioorg. Med. Chem.         2007, /5, 2006-2015.     -   Kubo, 1.; Kinst-Hori, I.; Kubo, Y., Yamagiwa, Y.; Kamikawa, T.;         Haraguchi, H. Molecular design of antibrowning agents., I Agric.         Food Chem. 2000, 48, 1393-1399.     -   Kubo, 1.; Kinst-Hori, 1.; Nihei, K.; Soria, F.; Takasaki, M.;         CalderOn, J. S.; Cespedes, C. L. Tyrosinase inhibitors from         galls of Rhus javanica leaves and their effects in insects. Z.         Naturforsch., C 2003, 58,719-725.     -   Kubo, I.; Chen, Q. X.; Nihei, K. Molecular design of         antibrowning agents: antioxidative tyrosinase inhibitors. Food         Chem. 2003, 81, 241-247.     -   Kang, N. H.; Rho, H. S.; Hwang, J. S.; Oh, S. G. Depigmenting         activity and low cytotoxicity of alkoxy benzoates or alkoxy         cinnamte in cultured melanocytes. Chem. Phurtn. Bull. 2003, 51,         1085-1088.     -   Nithitanakool, S.; Pithayanukul, P.; Bavovada, R.;         Saparpakorn, P. Molecular docking studies and anti-tyrosinase         activity of Thai mango seed kernel extract. Molecules 2009, 14,         257-265.     -   No, J. K.; Soung, D. Y.; Kim, ./I; Shim, K. H.; Jun, Y. S.;         Rhee, S. H.; Yokozawa, T.; Chung, H. Y. Inhibition of tyrosinase         by green tea components. Life Sci. 1999, 65, 241-246.     -   Lee, C. W.; Son, E. M.; Kim, H. S.; Xi, p.; Batmunkh, T.;         Lee, B. J.; Koo, K. A. Synthetic tyrosyl gallate derivatives as         potent melanin formation inhibitors. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett.         2007, /7, 5462-5464.     -   Ding, H. Y.; Lin, H. C.; Chang, T. S. Tyrosinase inhibitors         isolated from the roots of Paeonia suffruticosa. Cosmet. Sci. In         press.     -   Jeon. H. J.; Noda. M: Maruyama. M.; Matoha. Y.; Kumagai. T.;         Suqivama. M. Identification and kinetic study of tyrosinase         inhibitors found in sake lees. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54,         9827-9833.     -   Magid. A. A.; Voutquenne-Nazabadioko, L.; Bontemps. G.,         Litaudon, M.; Lavaud, C. Tyrosinase inhibitors and         sesquitterpene diglycosides from Guioa villosa. Planta Med.         2008, 74, 55-60.     -   Masuda, T.; Odaka, Y.; Oqawa, N.; Nakamoto, K.; Kuninaqa, H.         Identification of geranic acid, a tyrosinase inhibitor in         lemongrass (Cymbopogon Citratus). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56,         597-601.     -   Sabudak, T.; Khan, M. T.; Choudhary, M A.; Oksuz, S. Potent         tyrosinase inhibitors from Trifolium balansae. Nat. Prod. Res.         2006, 20, 665-670.     -   Khan, S. B.; Azhar-U1-Haq; Afza, N.: Malik, A.; Khan, M. T.;         Shah, M R.; Choudhary, M. I. Tyrosinase-inhibitory long-chain         esters from Amberboa ramosa. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2005, 53, 86-89.     -   Khan, M. T.; Khan, S .B.; Ather, A. Tyrosinase inhibitory         cycloartane type triterpenoids from the methanol extract of the         whole plant of Amberboa ramosa Jafiri and their         structure-activity relationship. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2006, 14,         938-943.     -   Khan, M. T.; Choudhary, M. I.; Atta-ur-Rahman; Mamedova, R. P.;         Aqzamova, M. A.; Sultankhodzhaev, M. N.; Isaev, M. I. Tyrosinase         inhibition studies of cycloartane and cucurbitane glycosides and         their structure-activity relationships. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2006,         14, 6085-6088.     -   Ullah, F.; Hussain, H.; Hussain, J.; Bukhari, I.A.; Khan, M. T.;         Choudhary, M. I.; Gilani, A. H.; Ahmad, V. U. Tyrosinase         inhibitory pentacyclic triterpenes and analgesic and spasmolytic         activities of methanol extracts of Rhododendron collettianum.         Phytother. Res. 2007, 21, 1076-4081.     -   Shaheen, F.; Ahmad, M.; Khan, M. T.; Jalil, S.; Ejaz, A.;         Sultankhodjaev, M. N.; Arfan, M.; Choudhary, M. I.;         Atta-ur-Rahman. Alkaloids of Aconitum laeve and their         anti-inflammatory antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibition         activities. Phtochemistry 2005, 66, 935-940.     -   Sultankhodzhaev, M. N.; Khan, M. T.; Moin, M.; Choudhary, M. I.;         Atta-ur-Rahman. Tyrosinase inhibition studies of diterpenoid         alkaloids and their derivatives: structure-activity         relationships. Nat. Prod. Res. 2005, 19, 517-522.     -   Li, C. Y.; Lee, E. J.; Wu, T. S. Antityrosinase principles and         constituents of the petals of Crocus sativus. J. Nat. Prod.         2004, 67, 437-440.     -   Wu, B.; He, S.; Wu, X. D.; Pan, Y. J. New tyrosinase inhibitory         sesquiterpenes from Chloranthus hentyi. Chem. Biodivers. 2008,         5, 1298-1303.     -   Wu, B.; Chen, J.; Qu, H.; Cheng. Y. Complex sesquiterpenoids         with tyrosinase inhibitory activity from the leaves of         Chloranthus tianmushanensis, J. Nat. Prod. 2008, 75, 877-880.     -   Choudhary, M. I.; Sultan, S.; Khan, M. T.; Ata-ur-Rahman.         Microbial transformation of 17alpha-ethynyl- and         17alpha-ethylsteroids, and tyrosinase inhibitory activity of         transformed products. Steroids 2005, 70, 798-802.     -   Leu, Y. L.; Hwang, T. L.; Hu, J. W.; Fang, J. Y. Anthraquinones         from Polygonum cuspidutum as tyrosinase inhibitors for dermal         use. Phytother. Res. 2008, 22, 552-556.     -   Devkota, K. P.; Khan, M. T.; Ranjit, R.; Lannang, A. M.;         Samreen; Choudhary, M. I. Tyrosinase inhibitory and         antileishmanial constituents from the rhizomes of Paris         polyphyllu. Nut. Prod. Res. 2007, 21, 321-327.     -   Azhar-Ul-Haq; Malik, A.; Khan, M. T.; Anwar-Ul-Haq; Khan, S. B.;         Ahmad, A.; Choudhary, M. I. Tyrosinase inhibitory lignans from         the methanol extract of the roots of Vitex negundo Linn. and         their structure-activity relationship. Phytomedicine 2006, 13,         255-260.     -   Kang, U. S.; Kim, U. K.; Byun, D. S.; Son, B. W.; Nam, T. J.;         Choi, J. S. Tyrosinase inhibitors isolated from the edible brown         alga Ecklonia stolonifera. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2004, 27,         1226-1232.     -   Li, X.; Kim, M. K.; Lee, U.; Kim, S. K.; Kang, J. S.; Choi, H.         D.; Son, B. W. Myrothenones A and B, cyclopentenone derivatives         with tyrosinase inhibitory activity from the marine-derived         fungus Myrothecium sp. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2005, 53, 453-455.     -   Tsuchiya, T.; Yamada, K.; Minoura, K.; Miyamoto, K.; Usami, Y.;         Kobayashi, T.; Hamada-Sato, N.;Imada, C.; Tsujibo, H.         Purification and determination of the chemical structure of the         tyrosinase inhibitor produced by Trichoderma viride strain H1-7         from a marine environment. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2008,         31.1618-1620.     -   Gerdemann, C.; Eicken, C.; Krebs, B. The crystal structure of         catechol oxidase: new insight into the function of type-3 copper         proteins. Ace. Chem. Res. 2002, 35, 183-191.     -   Criton, M.; Le Mellay-Hamon V. Analogues of         N-hydroxy-N′-phenylthrourea and N¬hydroxy-N-phenylurea as         inhibitors of tyrosinase and melanin formation. Bioorg. Med.         Chem. Lett. 2008, 18, 3607-3610.     -   Le Mellay-Hamon V.; Criton, M. Phenylethylamide and         phenylmethylamide derivatives as new tyrosinase inhibitors.         Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2009, 32, 301-303.     -   Kang, S. S.; Kim, H. J.; Jin, C.; Lee, Y. S. Synthesis of         tyrosinase inhibitory (4-oxo-4H-pyran¬2-yl)acrylic acid ester         derivatives. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2009, 19, 188-191.     -   Xre, L. P.; Chen, Q. X.; Huang, H.; Liu, X. D.; Chen, H. T.;         Zhang, R. Q. Inhibitory effects of cupferron on the         monophenolase and diphenolase activity of mushroom tyrosinase.         Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 2003, 35, 1658-1666.     -   Shiino, M.; Watanabe, Y.; Umezawa, K. Synthesis of N-substituted         N-nitrosohydroxylamines as inhibitors of mushroom tyrosinasc.         Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2001, 9, 1233-1240.     -   Shiino, M.; Watanabe, Y.; Umezawa. K. Synthesis of tyrosinase         inhibitory activity of novel         N-hydroxybenzyl-N-nitrosohydroxylamines. Bioorg. Chem. 2003,) 1,         129-135.     -   Shiino, M.; Watanabe, Y.; Umezawa, K. pH-dependent inhibition of         mushroom tyrosinase by N-substitutcd N-nitrosohydroxylamines. J.         Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem. 2008, 23, 16-20.     -   Khan, K. M.; Maharvi, G. M.; Per\ cell, S.; Khan, M. T.;         Abdel-Jalil, R. J.; Shah, S. T.; Fecker, M.; Choudhary,         Atta-ur-Rahman; Voel ter, W. Synthesis of methyl ether analogues         of sildenafil (Viagra) possessing tyrosinase inhibitory         potential. Chem. Biodivers. 2005, 2, 470-476.     -   Khan, M. T.; Choudhary, M. I.; Khan, K. M.; Rani, M.;         Atta-ur-Rahman. Structure-activity relationships of tyrosinase         inhibitory combinatorial library of         2,5-disubstituted-1,3,4-oxadiazole analogues. Bioorg. Med. Chem.         2005, /3388-3395.     -   Khan, K. M.; Mughal, U. R.; Khan, M. T.; Zia-Ullah; Perveen, S.;         Choudhary, M. I. Oxazolones: new tyrosinase inhibitors;         synthesis and their structure-activity relationships. Bioorg.         Med. Chem. 2006, /4,6027-6031     -   Khan et al., Tetraketones: a new class of tyrosinase inhibitors.         Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2006, 14, 344-351.     -   Koketsu et al., Inhibitory effects of 1,3-selenazol-4-one         derivatives on mushroom tyrosinase. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2002, 50,         1594-1596.     -   Ha et al., Inhibition of tyrosinase activity by         N,N-unsubstituted selenourea derivatives. Biol. Pharm. Bull.         2005, 28, 838-840.     -   Ahn et al., Regulation of melanin synthesis by         selenium-containing carbohydrates. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2006, 54,         281-286.     -   Kim, Y. J.; No, J. K.; Lee, .1.H.; Chung, H. Y.         4,41-Dihydroxybiphenyl as a new potent tyrosinase inhibitor.         Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2005, 28, 323-327.     -   Dai, Y.; Zhou, G. X.; Kurihara, H.; Ye, W. C.; Yao, X. S.         Biphenyl glycosides from the fruit of Pyracantha fortuneana. J.         Nat. Prod. 2006, 69, 1022-1024.     -   No, J. K.; Kim, Y. J.; Lee, J. S.; Chung, H. Y. Inhibition of         melanogenic activity by 4,4′-dihydroxybiphenyl in melanoma         cells. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2006, 29, 14-16.     -   Lee, K. H.; Koketsu, M.; Choi, S. Y.; Lee, K. J.; Lee, P.;         Ishihara, H.; Kim, S. Y. Potent inhibitory effects of N-aryl         S-alkylthiocarbamate derivatives on the dopa oxidase activity of         mushroom tyrosinase. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2005, 53, 747-749.     -   Kuo, P. C.; Damu, A. G.; Cherng, C. Y.; Jeng, J. F.; Teng, C.         M.; Lee, E. J.; Wu, T. S. Isolation of a natural antioxidant,         dehydrozingerone from Zingiber officinale and synthesis of its         analogues for recognition of effective and antioxidant and         antityrosinase agents. Arch. Pharm. Res, 2005, 28, 518-528     -   Tsou, C. L. Kinetics of substrate reaction during irreversible         modification of enzyme activity. Adv. Enzymol.Relat. Areas. Mol.         Biol. 1988, 61, 381-436.     -   Espin, I C; Wichers, H J, Effect of captopril on mushroom         tyrosinase activity in vitro. Bichim. Biophys. Acta. 2001,         1544,289-300.     -   Skotland, T.; Ljones, T. Inactivation of dopamine [         ]-monooxygenase by hydrogen peroxide and by Ascorbate. Arch.         Biochem. Biophys. 1980, 201, 81-87.     -   Andrawis, A.; Kahn, V. Inactivation of mushroom tyrosinase by         hydrogen peroxide. Phytochemisity 1985, 24, 397-405.     -   Schwcikardt, T.; Olivares, C.; Solano, F.; Jaenicke, E.;         Garcia-Botron, J. C.; Decker, H. A three-dimensional model of         mammalian tyrosinase active site accounting for loss of function         mutations. Pigment Cell Res. 2007, 20, 394-401.     -   Chen, Q. X.; Huang, H.; Kubo, 1. Inactivation kinetics of         mushroom tyrosinase by cetylpyridinium chloride. J. Protein         Chem. 2003, 22, 481-487.     -   Qiu, L.; Chen, Q. X.; Wang, Q.; Huang, H.; Song, K. K.         Irreversibly inhibitory kinetics of 3,5-dihydroxyphenyl         decanoate on mushroom (Agaricus hisporus) tyrosinase. Bioorg.         Med. Chem. 2005, 13, 6206-6211.     -   Liu, S. H.; Pan, I. H.; Chu, I. M. Inhibitory effect of         p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol on tyrosinase activity and         melanogenesis. Biol. Phurm. Bull. 2007, 30, 1135-1139.     -   Li, B.; Huang, Y.; Paskewitz, S. M. Hen egg white lysozyme as an         inhibitor of mushroom tyrosinase. FEBS Lett. 2006, 580,         1877-1882.     -   Haghbeen, K.; Saboury, A. A.; Karbassi, F. Substrate share in         the suicide inactivation of mushroom tyrosinase. Biophys. Acta         2004, 1675, 139-146.     -   Waley, S. G. Kinetics of suicide substrate: practical procedures         for determining parameters. Biochem. J. 1985, 227, 843-849.     -   Garcia-Canovas, F.; Tudela, J.; Varon, R.; Vazquez, A. M.         Experimental methods for kinetic study of suicide substrates. J.         Enzyme Inhih. 1989, 3, 81-90.     -   Land, E. J.; Ramsden. C. A.; Riley, P. A. The mechanism of         suicide-inactivation of tyrosinase: a substrate structure         investigation. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 2007, 212, 341-348.     -   Land, E. J.; Ramsden, C. A.; Riley, P. A.; Stratford, M. R.         Evidence consistent with the requirement of cresolase activity         for suicide inactivation of tyrosinase. Tohoku J. Exp. Med.         2008, 216,231-238.     -   Chang, T. S. 8-Hydroxydaidzein is unstable in alkaline         solutions. J. Cosmet. Sci. In press. Shibahara 5, Takeda, K,         Yasumoto K, Udono T, Watanabe K, Saito H, Takahashi K.         Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF):         Multiplicity in structure, function, and regulation. J.         Investig. Dermutol. Symp. Proc. 2001; 6:99-104.     -   Levy C, Khaled M, Fisher D. MITF: Master regulator of melanocyte         development and melanoma oncogene. Trends Mol. Med. 2006;         12:406-414.     -   Kim D, Park S, Park K. Transforming growth factor-beta1         decreases melanin synthesis via delayed extracellular         signal-regulated kinase activation. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol.         2004; 36:1482-1491     -   Yang G, Li Y, Nishimura E, Xin H, Zhou A, Guo Y, Dong L, Denning         M, Nickoloff B, Cui R. Inhibition of PAX3 by TGF-beta modulates         melanocyte viability. W. Cell. 2008; 32:554-563.     -   Kim D, Park 5, Kwon S, Park E, Huh C, Youn S W, Park K.         Sphingosylphosphorylcholine-induced ERK activation inhibits         melanin synthesis in human melanocytes. Pigment Cell Res. 2006;         19:146-153     -   Xu W, Gong L, Haddad M, Bischof 0, Campisi J, Yeh E, Medrano E.         Regulation of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor         MITF protein levels by association with the         ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme hUBC9. Exp. Cell Res. 2000;         255:135-143     -   Barbara Bellei, Enrica Flori, Enzo Izzo, Vittoria Maresca, Mauro         Picardo, GSK3[betaTGF inhibition promotes melanogenesis in mouse         B16 melanoma cells and normal human melanocytes, Cellular         Signalling, Volume 20, Issue 10, October 2008, Pages 1750-1761,         ISSN 0898-6568, DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2008.06.001.     -   DAN-NING HU, STEVEN A. McCORMICK, ALEXANDER Y. LIN, JENNIFER Y.         LIN, TGF-beta2 Inhibits Growth of Uveal Melanocytes at         Physiological Concentrations, Experimental Eye     -   Research, Volume 67, Issue 2, August 1998, Pages 14.3-150, ISSN         0014-4835, DOI: 10.1006/exer.1998.0501.     -   Villareal M O, Han J, Yamada P, Shigernori H, Isoda H., Hirseins         inhibit melanogenesis by regulating the gene expressions of Mitf         and melanogenesis enzymes, Exp Dennatol. 2010 May; 19(5):450-7.         Epub 2009 Sep. 17.     -   Jody P. Ebanks, R. Randall Wickett, and Raymond E. Boissy,         Mechanisms Regulating Skin Pigmentation: The Rise and Fall of         Complexion Coloration, Int J Mol Sci. 2009 September; 10(9):         4066-4087. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of lightening the color of the iris of a human subject, the method comprising administering to the iris of the human subject an amount of a composition comprising a tyrosinase inhibitor effective to lighten the color of the iris of the human subject.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the tyrosinase inhibitor is hydroquinone,
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the tyrosinase inhibitor is oxyresveratrol or tetrahydroxyisoflavone.
 4. The method of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the composition further comprises at least one melanogenesis inhibitor.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the melanogenesis inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of glutamate receptor blocker, an alpha-adrenergic blocker, a matrix metalloproteinases inhibitor, a Cox inhibitor. a cholinergic agonist, a downregulator of mitf, tyr &Trp1, an acidifier of melanosomes, an opioid receptor antagonist, a Pmel 17 blocker, and a fibroblast growth factor inhibitor.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the glutamate receptor blocker is memantine, the alpha-adrenergic blocker is thymoxamine, the matrix metalloproteinases inhibitor is prinomastat, the Cox inhibitor is bromfenac, the cholinergic agonist is pilocarpine, the downregulator of mitf, tyr &Trp1 is Haginin A or 4,4¹-dihyldroxybiphenyl, the acidifier of melanosomes is H89, the opioid receptor antagonist is naloxone, and the Pmel 17 blocker is calmodulin inhibitors, and with Transforming Growth Factor (TGF) family.
 7. The method of any one of claims 4-6, wherein the composition comprises hydroquinone, memantine and Haginin A.
 8. The method of any one of claims 4-6, wherein the composition comprises oxyresveratrol, 4,4′-dihyldroxybiphenyl and H89.
 9. The method of any one of claims 4-6, wherein the composition comprises tetrahydroxyisoflavone, prinomastat and naloxone.
 10. The method of any one of claims 1-9, wherein the composition is administered in conjunction with an injection of saline, siRNA, botulinum toxin, or a combination of botulinum toxin and siRNA.
 11. The method of any one of claims 1-10, wherein the composition is administered through a nanoparticle drug delivery system containing a targeting agent of iridial melanocytes.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the targeting agent comprises a composition of iron, zinc, gold, or a combination thereof.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the targeting agent comprises zinc oxide.
 14. The method of any one of claims 1-13, wherein the composition is in the form of eye drops.
 15. The method of any one of claims 1-13, wherein the composition is administered through an ophthalmic drug delivery system selecting from the group consisting of salves, creams, emulsions and gels.
 16. The method of claim 14 or
 15. wherein the composition is administered in the fornices under the eyelid.
 17. The method of any one of claims 1-13, wherein the composition is administered through an ophthalmic drug delivery system comprising a time-release coated insert.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the time-release coated insert is coated on at least one side.
 19. The method of any one of claims 1-18, wherein the subject is a healthy human.
 20. The method of any one of claims 1-18, wherein the subject is afflicted with glaucoma.
 21. A method of introducing pigments to the iris of a human subject, comprising administering to the iris an amount of at least one melanogenesis promoter, effective to introduce pigments to the iris of the human subject.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the iris of the human subject darkens after the introduction of pigments to the iris.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the at least one melanogenesis promoter is prostaglandin, forskolin, 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol and 1,2-diacylglycerol, or lotus flower essential oil, or a combination thereof
 24. A method of introducing pigments to the iris of a human subject, comprising administering to the iris an amount of a composition comprising a biological dye, effective to introduce pigment to the iris of the human subject.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the biological dye is a Trypan Blue or a Methyl Green biological dye.
 26. The method of claim 24 or 25, wherein the composition further comprises fluorescein.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the iris of the human subject changes color and/or glows.
 28. The method of any one of claims 21-27, wherein the composition is administered through a nanoparticle drug delivery system containing a targeting agent of iridial melanocytes.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the targeting agent comprises a composition of iron, zinc, gold, or a combination thereof.
 30. The method of claims 29, wherein the targeting agent comprises zinc oxide.
 31. A nanoparticle composition for lightening pigmented tissues, comprising a targeting agent of melanocytes chemically bound to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a tyrosinase inhibitor.
 32. The nanoparticle composition of claim 31, wherein the targeting agent comprises a composition of iron, zinc, gold, or a combination thereof.
 33. The nanoparticle composition of claim 32, wherein the targeting agent comprises zinc oxide.
 34. The nanoparticle composition of any one of claims 31-33, wherein the tyrosinase inhibitor is hydroquinone.
 35. The nanoparticle composition of any one of claims 31-34, wherein the pharmaceutical composition further comprises at least one melanogenesis inhibitor.
 36. The nanoparticle composition of any one of claims 31-35, wherein the pigmented tissues are skin or hair tissues.
 37. The nanoparticle composition of any one of claims 31-36, which is in the form of an injectable solution or a topically applied solution.
 38. A method for lightening pigmented tissues of a human subject, comprising administering the nanoparticle composition of any one of claims 31-37 to the human subject so as to lighten the pigmented tissues, wherein the targeting agent binds to cells of the pigmented tissues to permit the release of the pharmaceutical composition directly into the cells of the pigmented tissues without affecting non-pigmented cells.
 39. A nanoparticle composition for treating a pigmented tissue related disease, comprising a targeting agent of melanocytes chemically bound to a pharmaceutical composition comprising an active agent for the disease.
 40. The nanoparticle composition of claim 39, wherein the targeting agent comprises a composition of iron, zinc, gold, or a combination thereof.
 41. The nanoparticle composition of claim 40, wherein the targeting agent comprises zinc oxide.
 42. The nanoparticle composition of any one of claims 38-40, wherein the disease is glaucoma or melanoma cancer.
 43. A method for treating a pigmented tissue related disease, comprising administering the nanoparticle composition of any one of claims 38-42 to the subject so as to treat the disease, wherein the targeting agent binds to cells of the diseased pigmented tissue to permit the release of the pharmaceutical composition directly into the cells of the diseased pigmented tissue without affecting non-pigmented cells.
 44. A method of depigmenting the iris melanocytes to lighten the color of the iris, comprising the step of: a. Blocking the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve supply to the melanocytes using botulinum toxin and memantine; b. Preventing tyrosine conversion to melanin by one of available tyrosinase inhibitors; c. Preventing Melanocyte-stimulating hormone activation (MSH) by using 2,5-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (DMHF); d. Inhibiting the COX-2 enzyme using NSAIDS; e. Preventing melanogenesis by using a cholinergic agonist; f. Blocking Alpha I-adrenergic receptors by using antagonist chemicals; g. Transcriptional regulation of Melanogenic Enzymes by downregulation of MITF by Transforming Growth Factor (TGF) Family; or h. Post-Transcriptional Modification of Melanogenic Enzymes by Inhibiting N-glycolysation of melanosomal enzymes, or a combination thereof, and using the subject matter of any one of the preceding claims for delivering depigmenting compositions to melanocytes in the iris.
 45. The method of claim 44, comprising the step of: a. Transcriptional regulation of Melanogenic Enzymes by downregulation of MITF by Transforming Growth Factor (TGF) Family; or b. Post-Transcriptional Modification of Melanogenic Enzymes by Inhibiting N-glycolysation of melanosomal enzymes, or c. a combination thereof
 46. The method of claim 45, comprising the step of: a. Transcriptional regulation of Melanogenic Enzymes by downregulation of MITF by Transforming Growth Factor (TGF) Family.
 47. The method of claim 46, wherein the downregulation of MITF is regulated by Transforming growth factor-beta1.
 48. The method of claim 46, wherein the downregulation of MITE is regulated by Transforming growth factor-beta2.
 49. The method of claim 46, wherein the downregulation of MITF is regulated by both Transforming growth factor-beta1 and Transforming growth factor-beta2.
 50. The method of claim 45, comprising the step of: Post-Transcriptional Modification of Melanogenic Enzymes by Inhibiting N-glycolysation of melanosomal enzymes
 51. The method of any one of claims 1-30, 38 and 43-50, wherein the medication is transported into the anterior chamber of the eye by microneedles.
 52. The method of any one of claims 1-30, 38 and 43-50, wherein the medication is transported into the anterior chamber of the eye by over-saturating the molecule carriers with the medication.
 53. The method of any one of claims 1-30, 38 and 43-50, wherein the medication is transported inside the melanocytes via Folate receptors.
 54. A composition for lightening pigmented tissues, comprising a targeting agent of melanocytes chemically bound to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a tyrosinase inhibitor.
 55. The composition of claim 54, wherein the targeting agent comprises a composition of iron, zinc, gold, or a combination thereof.
 56. The composition of claim 55, wherein the targeting agent comprises zinc oxide.
 57. The composition of any one of claims 54-56, wherein the tyrosinase inhibitor is hydroquinone.
 58. The composition of any one of claims 54-57, wherein the pharmaceutical composition further comprises at least one melanogenesis inhibitor.
 59. The composition of any one of claims 54-58, wherein the pigmented tissues are skin or hair tissues.
 60. The composition of any one of claims 54-59, which is in the form of an injectable solution or a topically applied solution.
 61. A method for lightening pigmented tissues of a human subject, comprising administering the composition of any one of claims 54-60 to the human subject so as to lighten the pigmented tissues, wherein the targeting agent binds to cells of the pigmented tissues to permit the release of the pharmaceutical composition directly into the cells of the pigmented tissues without affecting non-pigmented cells.
 62. A composition for treating a pigmented tissue related disease, comprising a targeting agent of melanocytes chemically bound to a pharmaceutical composition comprising an active agent for the disease.
 63. The composition of claim 62, wherein the targeting agent comprises a composition of iron, zinc, gold, or a combination thereof.
 64. The composition of claim 63, wherein the targeting agent comprises zinc oxide.
 65. The composition of any one of claims 62-64, wherein the disease is glaucoma or melanoma cancer.
 66. A method for treating a pigmented tissue related disease, comprising administering the composition of any one of claims 62-65 to the subject so as to treat the disease, wherein the targeting agent binds to cells of the diseased pigmented tissue to permit the release of the pharmaceutical composition directly into the cells of the diseased pigmented tissue without affecting non-pigmented cells. 